Arms of the First World War

Development

Britain was the only nation to adopt the bolt-action mechanism developed by Scots-Canadian James Paris Lee, when it replaced the lever-operated Martini-Henry with the Lee-Metford rifle in 1888. 'Metford' referred to British engineer William Ellis Metford, who designed the original pattern of rifling for the weapon, which was fitted with an eight-round magazine.

Like all British infantry arms before it, the Metford was designed to fire black powder, in this case inside the new .303 cartridge. By 1895 however, it had been discovered that the fast-burning smokeless propellants coming in to use would rapidly wear out Metford's shallow, rounded grooves. This polygonal rifling system was actually ahead of its time, and thanks to advances in metallurgy, is back in use today, for example in the Glock pistol adopted by the Austrian and British armies. Nonetheless, at the time a replacement type of rifling was needed.

The pattern devised at the Royal Firearms Factory at Enfield reverted to conventional square grooves, and gave the weapon the Lee-Enfield name. Magazine capacity was also increased by widening the magazine to accommodate two columns of cartridges, and, later, a metal bridge over the action to allow five rounds at a time to be stripped from chargers (clips) carried in pouches on the soldier's web equipment.

Use and effect

Velocity was key to the power and accuracy of infantry rifles. Improvements to the Lee-Metford pushed muzzle velocity from 622 metres per second (2040 feet per second) up to 751 m/s (2460 fps). Nonetheless, this was still lower than the 878 m/s (2,881 fps) of the Mauser 98. The Metford's original black powder cartridge was loaded with a round-nosed bullet that did not 'tumble' (yaw) in human tissue. This resulted in less severe wounds than those caused by previous weapons. This was soon replaced by more lethal designs including the infamous 'Dum-Dum' and ultimately, the modern pointed bullet.

The Lee action was also not as strong nor as accurate as the Mauser, and whilst almost legendary today, was not well thought of by many officers and men when it was introduced. It did have the advantage of twice the magazine capacity of most of its rivals. It was also easier to use in combat. In the Mauser, the operator must overcome the pressure of the firing pin spring, as well as any resistance from the fired cartridge case, as the bolt handle is pulled upwards. In the Lee, the firing pin is cocked as the bolt is pushed forwards, allowing the user to apply more muscles to the task, and speeding up reloading.

The Lee-Enfield appears to be about the worst rifle in the hands of the troops of the great powers.

Major William Anstruther-Thompson, Royal Horse Guards, 1900

Statistics

• Date entered service - 1895
• Action / Operating system - Bolt-action
• Barrel length - 76.7 cm (30.2 in)
• Overall length - 1.257 m (49.5 in)
• Weight - 4.3 kg (9 lb 8 oz)
• Effective range - 550 m (600 yd)
• Maximum range - 3200 m (3500 yd)
• Feed - Box magazine
• Capacity (rounds) - 8
• Calibre / Bore - 7.7x56mmR (.303 in)
• Muzzle velocity - 625 m/s (2050 fps)
• Country of manufacture - Britain
• Manufacturer - Birmingham Small Arms Company
• Manufacturer - Royal Small Arms Enfield
• Manufacturer - Royal Small Arms Factory Sparkbrook
• Primary operator - Britain
• Other operators - Australia
• Other operators - Canada
• Other operators - New Zealand
• Other operators - Portugal

Mr. J. Curdie, Private, 6th Battalion, Highland Light Infantry

Rifles were standard issue to all infantry units during the First World War and volunteers would go through three months of physical and weapons training to turn from civilians into soldiers. Mr. Curdie joined the Highland Light Infantry in late 1914 and described the arduous training regime of a new recruit.

Training was intense in rifle practice, we went to the ranges at Derwent, we had skirmishes of a type designed to train us and extend our manoeuvres. We even had attempts at night manoeuvres, in difficult terrain.

Download the transcript of Mr. Curdie's interview. 

Development

The key word in the SMLE's designation is 'Short', which refers to the length of the rifle relative to the old 'Long' Magazine Lee-Metford and Lee-Enfield rifles that it replaced. It was discovered at the end of the 19th century that more powerful smokeless propellant would allow long, cumbersome infantry rifles to be reduced in length without any loss in capability. This would make the weapon lighter and easier to manipulate, and also simplify production and logistics.

At the same time, the British Army was facing skilled Boer marksmen in the South African War (1899-1902), with their accurate, long-ranged Mauser rifles. This led to complaints against both British standards of marksmanship training and the Lee rifle. Some advocated that long range accuracy was the key, but the Indian Army, also experiencing real combat in the North West Frontier region (now Afghanistan), showed that an overhaul of traditional tactics was needed. Soldiers standing shoulder-to-shoulder in the open, and firing simultaneously on direct orders from their officers, were an easy target for any enemy that chose not to fight in this way.

Officers with the Indian Army were instrumental in changes to doctrine and training that would allow soldiers to fire independently and as rapidly as necessary, as targets became available. These changes are reflected in the Mark III* version of the SMLE, which did away with antiquated 'dial' sights for massed rifle fire at extreme range, and a cut-off plate, intended to keep the magazine in reserve, which reflected strict fire orders already out of use by 1914.

Use and effect

One standard short rifle for all troops meant that the traditional short carbines used by the cavalry and artillery could be abandoned. Further reflecting changes in fighting style, sighting arrangements were also changed on the SMLE. Front and rear sights were closer together, allowing the shooter to quickly align them for a 'snap' shot.

This new rifle and these new tactics, both geared toward the reality of close to medium-range combat, were vital in helping to halt the German advance in 1914. The shorter, handier rifle with its distinctive stubby appearance also went on to provide an edge in trench warfare, the extent of which its designers could not have predicted. The high rates of fire achieved in training also resulted in claims that the British 'Tommy' was able to deliver a greater volume of fire than his enemies or allies.

Our men have come to believe that every one of you carries a portable Maxim with him.

A German officer's comments on the high rate of British rifle fire at the Battle of Mons.

Statistics

• Date entered service - 1903
• Action / Operating system - Bolt-action
• Barrel length - 64 cm (25.2 in)
• Overall length - 1.118 m (44 in)
• Weight - 3.96 kg (8 lb 11 oz)
• Effective range - 503 m (550 yd)
• Maximum range - 2743 m (3000 yd)
• Feed - Box magazine
• Capacity (rounds) - 10
• Calibre / Bore - 7.7x56mmR (.303 in)
• Muzzle velocity - 744 m/s (2441 fps)
• Rate of fire (rounds per minute) - 25
• Country of manufacture - Britain
• Manufacturer - National Rifle Factory Manufacturer - Royal Small Arms Factory Enfield
• Manufacturer - Birmingham Small Arms Company
• Manufacturer - London Small Arms Company
• Manufacturer - Royal Small Arms Factory Sparkbrook
• Manufacturer - Standard Small Arms
• Primary operator - Britain
• Other operators - Australia
• Other operators - Canada
• Other operators - India
• Other operators - New Zealand
• Other operators - Portugal 

Development

The Martini-Enfield was a marriage of the aging Martini action of Martini-Henry fame, with a rifled barrel of the same pattern as that fitted to the Magazine Lee-Enfield and Short Magazine Lee-Enfield service rifles. As such, it was a single-shot weapon manually operated weapon by means of a long lever behind the trigger guard. This was an efficient system when the Martini-Henry was originally adopted in 1871; simpler and faster to operate than the early bolt-action weapons being adopted in Europe.

By the 1880s though, the internal magazine had given bolt-action rifles a great deal more firepower. Despite an impressive, if over-engineered, solution by Canadian army officer Captain C. Greville Harston, the Martini action proved incompatible with a magazine, and it became obsolete. All Martinis still in service after the introduction of the Lee-Metford (1888) and Lee-Enfield (1895) rifles were therefore converted to .303 calibre and relegated to reserve status.

Because the Volunteer Training Corps were not part of the British army's formal establishment however, their Lee-Enfield and Martini-Enfield rifles were purchased commercially from local gunmakers. For example, in the case of the Kings Lynn detachment, an order was placed with Agnew and Sons of Colchester, more usually known for their shotguns. This approach gave rise to a specific 'VTC' pattern of carbine, based upon existing 'trade' versions sold abroad to economically less well developed countries.

Use and effect 

Like many nations, Britain lacked enough up-to-date weapons to equip every military unit. Priority went to front-line regular and territorial regiments. The unprecedented need for weapons meant that even some of these were equipped with older types.

The Volunteer Training Corps was a precursor of the Home Guard of the Second World War - a volunteer unit comprised of men too old or infirm for service abroad. It also included those in reserved occupations deemed essential to the war effort. With the technology and politics of the day, invasion of Great Britain by Germany was extremely unlikely, yet from 1915 Zeppelin and aeroplane attacks began to claim civilian lives. An armed presence on the 'Home Front' was therefore important, if only to reassure the population that they were protected. In fact, it was primarily the responsibility of the Royal Navy and Royal Artillery to respond to any attack.

The Martini-Enfields of the VTC were never called upon, but they certainly would have had the power to put up a rugged defence against enemy infantry. The weapon was a carbine in name only, sharing barrel length with the short SMLE rifle. Therefore, the power, accuracy, and overall weight of the two weapons were very similar. The lack of a magazine for rapid fire, however, would have been a disadvantage in pitched battle. Some VTC units had access to the Lee-Enfield, and early on, some had actually been provided by the War Office with the modern Pattern 1914 rifle.

Due to a shortage of rifles in 1914, the latter were withdrawn and reissued elsewhere, as this verse from a poem sent in to The National Guard Magazine in 1917 laments:

Nor is there room to write a trifle About the 1914 rifle. One day 'tis here, the next day gone, Our darling from our arms is torn, And "Old Martini" carried on!

Statistics

• Date entered service - 1914
• Action / Operating system - Lever-operated tilting block
• Barrel length - 64 cm (25.2 in)
• Overall length - 1.18 m (46.5 in)
• Weight - 3.71 kg (8 lb 3 oz)
• Effective range - 503 m (550 yd)
• Feed - Single shot
• Capacity (rounds) - 0
• Calibre / Bore - 7.7x56mmR (.303 in)
• Muzzle velocity - 744 m/s (2440 fps)
• Rate of fire (rounds per minute) - about 12
• Country of manufacture - Britain
• Manufacturer - Royal Small Arms Factory Enfield
• Primary operator - Britain 

Development

The SMLE rifle had been well suited to war in the trenches. In 1916, it was further refined as the Mark III* by eliminating redundant features, by which time fabric action covers and metal muzzle covers had been issued to limit ingress of mud and water. Work began too on dedicated sniper variants. A number of other adaptations were made specifically for trench warfare in the form of attachments or accessories. These could, in theory, be fitted to any service rifle.

'Overhead fire' devices were developed to permit a soldier to not only see above ground level by means of a periscope attachment, but also to continue firing from safety. The metal frame was collapsible and contained an auxiliary trigger linked to the rifle's trigger. Thrown hand grenades were limited in range by the strength of the soldier's arm.

It was realised in 1915 that the power of a rifle could be used to project 'bombs' to greater ranges, and potentially also improve accuracy. The rod was slightly smaller than the bore of the SMLE rifle, and could be slid into it. A blank cartridge fired behind the rod would propel this new 'rod grenade' out of the barrel.

At first, a series of dedicated designs were produced that could only be fired from a rifle. Later, the standard No.5 Mills 'bomb' was converted by means of a different screw-on baseplate to attach a copper rod, changing its designation to 'No.23' and permitting either hand throwing or rifle discharge. Under this system, a sheet metal bracket had to be fitted, held in place by a standard bayonet.

All of these rod systems tended to wear the SMLE's rifling, and so the 'cup' system was introduced in 1917. This used a detachable metal cup, actually a concept used with muzzleloading arms in the 18th and early 19th centuries. Again, a blank cartridge was inserted into the chamber prior to firing, and the new No.36 hand grenade prepared for rifle discharge by screwing a circular plate onto its base.

Use and effect

The overhead fire device successfully allowed soldiers to use several feet of earth as cover against enemy fire. Too few were available to give any great volume of fire, relegating the device to short range sniping at enemy soldiers who strayed into 'no man's land' or raised their heads above the parapet of their own trench. The British version was not as fully developed as the German equivalent, and lacked an auxiliary bolt handle. As such, it had to be brought down from the parapet for reloading.

It also took time to fit and detach these devices, which meant that a spare rifle would typically be found for use with the frame. It became, in effect, a specialist trench weapon in its own right. The same applied to grenade launching devices. Whilst capable of projecting a grenade many times further than the human hand, launching such heavy projectiles generating immense recoil.

Both rod and cup type systems had to be fired with the butt jammed into the ground. With practice, rough aim could be established simply by leaning the rifle at the correct angle, though support frames with clamps were also created. This harsh recoil however tended to crack the wooden stock of the rifle.

Rifle grenades were too useful to be abandoned, and development of a satisfactory standalone launcher would take too long (though it was attempted with the little-known Blanch-Chevallier launcher). Instead, rifles deemed to be in too poor a state for general issue were wrapped with reinforcing copper wire and designated as full-time grenade launchers. These rifles were already marked 'EY' for 'Emergency use only'.

Detachable wire-cutters were more successful as truly interchangeable accessories, and were often fitted prior to an attack. If time was short to remove them prior to actual combat, they could be left on the rifle and would not greatly interfere with its operation at trench fighting ranges. They would throw off a shooter's aim at ranges beyond 100 m (109 yd) however, as they added weight to the muzzle, changing the balance of the rifle.

Statistics

• Date entered service - 1916
• Action / Operating system - Bolt-action
• Barrel length - 64 cm (25.2 in)
• Overall length - 1.118 m (44 in)
• Weight - 3.96 kg (8 lb 11 oz)
• Effective range - 503 m (550 yd)
• Feed - Box magazine
• Capacity (rounds) - 10
• Calibre / Bore - 7.7x56mmR (.303 in)
• Muzzle velocity - 744 m/s (2441 fps)
• Rate of fire (rounds per minute) - 25
• Country of manufacture - Britain
• Manufacturer - Birmingham Small Arms Company
• Manufacturer - London Small Arms Company
• Manufacturer - National Rifle Factory
• Manufacturer - Royal Small Arms Factory Enfield
• Manufacturer - Royal Small Arms Factory Sparkbrook
• Manufacturer - Standard Small Arms
• Primary operator - Britain
• Other operators - Australia
• Other operators - Canada
• Other operators - India
• Other operators - New Zealand 

Development

The centuries leading up to the First World War had seen the military use terms such as 'rifleman' and 'sharpshooter'. The birth of sniping as a military discipline, however, came of age during the First World War. The art of sniping was never embraced by soldiers of either side. Snipers often used trees, shell holes, and hollow logs in which to conceal themselves. Occasionally hollow metal trees were used, carefully put into place under cover of darkness.

Unpopular amongst their fellow comrades as well as the enemy, Frederick Sleath, a British sniping officer commented, 'there was something about them that set them apart from ordinary men and made soldiers uncomfortable.' The killing of individuals from a secret location was seen as deceptive and unsporting, whilst it was perfectly acceptable to bayonet an enemy to death in close-quarter combat. Ongoing developments in scope technology during the War allowed the sniper a clearer sight picture. Teamed with the ability of stalking and concealment, these scopes contributed to the overall efficiency of snipers.

In early 1915, realising that the list of casualties caused by enemy snipers needed to be reduced, the British began their search for a rifle to counteract the enemy. Most of these were hunting rifles and although they could pierce enemy sniper plates, they were only available in non-standard calibres. Their recoil also made them difficult to shoot from the prone position. It was suggested that the Enfield Pattern 1914 might be suited to the task, however the need to convert it from .276 inch to .303 inch was thought to be a lengthy and costly operation. Instead the standard issue infantry Short Magazine Lee-Enfield (SMLE) rifle Mark III, was chosen for sniper conversion.

Manufacturing a telescopic sight for the SMLE was even more problematic. Most optical glass was being used to manufacture artillery gun sights, telescopes, and binoculars, and a set pattern for mounting sights on rifles didn't exist. Eventually, after a rush decision in May 1915, three primary patterns were agreed on. These were the British PPCo, the British Aldis and the American commercial Winchester A5. Other British manufactures such as Evans and Watts, and even German and French scopes, were also used.

Use and effect

Used by both British and Commonwealth snipers, the PPCo, although robust enough for life on the Western Front, had only 2x magnification. The German Goertz scope, which was attached to the Mauser Gewher 98 rifle, provided its user with 3x magnification. Higher magnification resulted in a clearer, brighter and larger sight image. The PPCo scope was also offset, forcing the sniper to either raise their head from the stock when aiming, or to shoot with the left eye. Both would compromise accuracy.

In contrast, the Mauser's design provided two available platforms for scope mounts to be fitted. The scope was mounted in a more central position, allowing the snipers head to become more naturally aligned with the barrel thus providing greater accuracy. It was not purely the scope which determined the efficiency of a sniper.

Despite the British scopes not being as sharp as their German counterparts, the capability of the German snipers on the Western front was due to a combination of abilities. Many German soldiers had experience of marksmanship, observation and stalking, due to their game-keeping heritage and with these basic skills already in place, the German army could quickly train skilled snipers. The existence of superior scope technology was a bonus.

Early teams of British snipers were referred to as 'The Suicide Squad', due to their lack of training and the technology available to them. Although by 1915 scoped rifles started to appear on the Western front, many had no idea how to use them effectively. This was observed first hand by Major Hesketh-Pritchard:

I had gone down on duty and there found a puzzled looking private with a beautiful new rifle with an Evans telescopic sight. I examined the elevating drum and saw that it was set for 100 yards. "Look here," I said, "You have got this sight set for a hundred. The Hun trenches are four hundred yards away." The private looked puzzled. "Have you ever shot with this rifle?" I asked. "No Sir." "Do you understand it?" "No Sir." 

Realising the need for 'trained' snipers to accompany their enhanced sniper rifles, Sniper Schools were set up in late 1915 /early 1916. Teaching students how to determine range, the effect of windage, correct manipulation of the rifle and the importance of camouflage, the British sniper finally became a force to be reckoned with. 

Statistics

• Date entered service - about 1915
• Action / Operating system - Bolt
• Barrel length - 73.7 cm (29 in)
• Overall length - 1.125 m (44.5 in)
• Weight - 4.960 kg (10 lb 15 oz)
• Effective range - 503 m (550 yd)
• Feed - Internal Magazine
• Capacity (rounds) - 10
• Calibre / Bore - 7.7x56mmR (.303 in)
• Muzzle velocity - 744 m/s (2441 fps)
• Country of manufacture - Britain
• Manufacturer - PPCo
• Primary operator - Britain 

Mr. Gadsby, Private, 6th Battalion, Border Regiment and Machine Gun Corps

At Gallipoli, Allied soldiers were at severe risk from local Ottoman snipers. The hilly terrain offered marksmen excellent vantage points. In response, Allied forces raised sniping teams from soldiers who were skilled shooters prior to the war. Mr. Gadsby of the Border Regiment describes his experience of sniping in the Dardanelles.

We stopped and dug in. A big plain at the front, we were on top of that hill, then at back it was just like going up that wall. They were dug out in front of it, our sniper from the trenches and I think I got one or two.

Download a transcript of Mr. Gadsby's interview

Development

By the First World War, most revolvers were double-action. That is, pulling the trigger both cocks and releases the hammer. This allowed rapid fire, but required a great deal of force to perform both of these actions. This caused the weapon to shake as it fired, reducing accuracy. For aimed fire therefore, the shooter could manually cock the hammer as he would a single-action revolver. This reduced the weight of the trigger pull, but took precious time and deliberate effort to perform in a high stress situation.

Early self-loading pistols also had light triggers and could be fired rapidly, but were often perceived as being less reliable than revolvers. This opened up a very short period at the beginning of the twentieth century during which there was a gap in the pistol market for an alternative. The Webley-Fosbery revolver was an ingenious solution from British designer George Vincent Fosbery.

Fosbery had a distinguished Indian Army career, being awarded the Victoria Cross in 1865. He invented the 'Paradox' shotgun, as well as pioneering the bolt mechanism used today in the AR15 rifle. He also lectured on the subject of military pistol 'stopping power' that a large, heavy bullet was needed to 'physically cripple or disable' one's enemy at close quarters. Fosbery's revolver was based on the service Webley, and the most common variant chambered the standard .455 cartridge. It was extensively redesigned, however, featuring a recoiling upper frame to revolve its cylinder and cock its hammer automatically after each shot. A .38 ACP calibre version was also produced, but is rare today.

Unusually for a revolver, it also sported a safety catch. This was advertised as allowing speed of operation, but simply cocking the hammer on drawing the pistol would have been just as quick. In fact, the safety was essential to prevent accidental discharge. The sliding frame meant that the hammer could be inadvertently cocked when the pistol was holstered.

Use and effect

The Fosbery's self-cocking hammer made the trigger very easy and quick to pull, a desirable feature in close-quarter battle. The .455 already had low perceived recoil, and the reciprocating upper frame further reduced this. It was possible to keep all six shots on target under rapid fire. Fosbery had succeeded in designing the fastest firing revolver ever created.

Despite this, it had limitations. Using a form of blowback operation, if the Fosbery were not firmly grasped with arm extended, there would be insufficient resistance to allow the upper frame to recoil far enough to recock the hammer. If this occurred, or if a cartridge failed to fire, the lack of a double-action trigger meant that the weapon would have to be manually cocked to fire the next shot. The user of the service Webley had only to pull the trigger again to revolve the cylinder and drop the hammer on the next chamber to continue firing.

Reloading was no quicker and capacity (in .455) no greater. The Fosbery also added complexity to an otherwise reliable design, increasing the need to keep the weapon clean to ensure reliable operation. The pistol was rejected by the U.S. military in favour of what became the Colt M1911, which also saw more British service than the Fosbery. Nonetheless, some Fosberys were purchased privately by British army officers, including Rudyard Kipling's son Jack. One was carried by Captain Hylton Widdrington Young of the Royal Inniskilling Fusiliers on the retreat from Mons in August 1914.

The Royal Navy also officially procured 66 examples in 1915, for issue to officers of the Royal Naval Air Service. This example, produced in July 1904, belonged to Viscount Rudolph Edmund Aloysius Feilding of the Coldstream Guards. Feilding was awarded the Distinguished Service Order in October 1914. His father, the 9th Earl of Denbigh, argued strongly in the House of Lords against conscientious objectors, whom he regarded as 'dangerous lunatics'. Feilding also owned a .455 calibre American Colt New Service revolver. It is not known which, if either, of these revolvers he took with him to the Western Front.

Statistics

• Date entered service - 1915
• Action / Operating system - Blowback
• Barrel length - 15.2 cm (6 in)
• Overall length - 26.7 cm (10.5 in)
• Weight - 1.05 kg (2lb 5 oz)
• Effective range - 30-40 m (33 - 44 yd)
• Feed - Cylinder
• Capacity (rounds) - 6
• Calibre / Bore - 11.5 mm (.455 in)
• Muzzle velocity - 229 m/s (750 fps)
• Country of manufacture - Britain
• Manufacturer - Webley and Scott
• Primary operator - Britain 

Development

The iconic Webley top-break revolvers served the British armed forces in various incarnations from the 1887 to 1963. Developed and manufactured by Webley and Scott (formerly P. Webley and Son before a merger with W & C Scott) until 1921. The British military officially adopted the Mark VI revolver from 1915 to 1923.

This model retained its automatic extraction feature, as sported by its predecessors. Improvements included a more squared grip, a longer barrel and removable front sights. The revolver chambered six rounds of 'man-stopping' .455 in ammunition. Introduced as a Victorian black powder cartridge in 1892, attempts were made to improve the round. The switch to cordite propellant in 1894 increased the round's velocity and accuracy.

The .455 in Mark II ammunition used in the Webley Mark VI was adopted by the British Army in 1897. The Mark II ammunition had a round nose bullet, and was shorter than the Mark I in order to increase the rate of burn of the cordite. Shorter cases were a good method of reduced manufacturing costs, which were so vital to the war effort. Although the cordite increased the round's velocity and accuracy, it was still comparatively under-powered, compared to its opponents, mainly due to the bullet's weight.

Use and effect

Whilst British officers could purchase their own pistols, provided they were chambered in .455 calibre, the Webley series of revolvers was available to them and issued as standard to machine gun crews, aircrew, raiding parties, tank crew, and naval personnel.

In 1915, procurement was switched from the Mark V revolver with its 'birds head' shaped grip, to the longer barrelled Webley Mark VI. A very robust double-action design, it performed well in the mud of the trenches and the dust of the Eastern Front alike. It could be fired rapidly, if inaccurately, by pulling through on the trigger to both cock and release the hammer. Accurate shots were possible if the hammer was manually cocked with the thumb between shots, but even this required a combination of natural ability and practice.

Second-Lieutenant John Hayes Fearnhead of the 7th Battalion, Liverpool Regiment, wrote on this subject just eight days before he was killed in action on the Western Front:

Have I told you I have got my revolver? Had it a week or more now, of course the army calls it a pistol, Webley, one, but it revolves so I call it a revolver. After assiduous practice over the top I am at last able to hit the side of a fairly large house at a distance of 5 paces, with luck. The weapon is a beauty though with an absolute hair trigger and a very easy action. Feel quite safe now wherever I go! Even if I couldn't hit anybody, I could make a big row and frighten them away!

Like most revolvers, the Webley Mark VI held six rounds of ammunition; less than the standard Enfield service rifle. A vital accessory for trench fighting was therefore the Prideaux speed-loader, which greatly reduced reloading times. The operator only had to press a thumb catch with his shooting hand, break open the frame with his other, and push the complete loader into the cylinder. This dropped all six rounds neatly into place, requiring only that the weapon be snapped shut to resume firing.

A bayonet was also commercially available at one time. Another accessory sometimes claimed for the Webley is a shoulder stock. This unwieldy combination is now thought to be a post-war fabrication using the stock developed by Webley for their signal pistol. A lanyard was typically worn with this revolver by officers. This prevented the pistol being dropped, but had the potential to catch in the hammer, preventing the firing pin from reaching the primer in the base of the cartridge and resulting in a misfire. This could mean the difference between life and death in close- quarter combat. As the lanyard was worn around the neck, it could also in theory be used by the enemy to choke the wearer if things came to blows. The safest and most effective way to carry the Webley was with the lanyard being secured on the arm or around the belt of the Sam Browne.

Statistics

• Date entered service - 1915
• Action / Operating system - Double-action
• Barrel length - 10.6 cm (4.17 in)
• Overall length - 28.6 cm (11.25 in)
• Weight - 1.1 kg ( 2 lb 4 oz )
• Effective range - 30 m (34 yd)
• Feed - Cylinder
• Capacity (rounds) - 6
• Calibre / Bore - 11.5 mm (.455 in)
• Muzzle velocity - 190 m/s (620 fps)
• Country of manufacture - Britain
• Manufacturer - Webley and Scott
• Primary operator - Britain 

Mr. A.E. Brown, Second Battalion, Lincolnshire Regiment

As the opposing sides became more entrenched on the Western Front, trench raids became a vital way to seize prisoners and gain intelligence on the enemy. Mr. A.E. Brown describes how he captured a prisoner in an action on the Marne in France.

I pulled out my revolver and fired at him, I catch him in the wrist, I fetched him in, he had two iron crosses and he was a sergeant, German infantry, he was taken down to headquarters.

Download a transcript of Mr. A.E. Brown's interview

Development

The British Vickers gun was developed from the original automatic machine gun designed by Sir Hiram Stevens Maxim in 1884. Though an American by birth, Maxim came to Britain to build and sell his new gun. He was knighted for his services to the Empire in 1901.

Britain had been an early adopter of the Maxim gun, with the first examples entering service in 1887 on artillery-style wheeled carriages, though significant numbers did not arrive until the 1890s. These guns actually remained in service, alongside the Vickers, right through the First World War, as the War Office realised that Germany had taken a lead in machine gun production. Even captured German examples were converted to take British .303 ammunition.

The Maxim proved itself useful in colonial warfare against superior numbers of enemies not themselves equipped with firearms. It was estimated to have the firepower of up to 70 riflemen, and so early tactics focused upon devastating close-range defensive fire. In essence, the machine gun was treated as a form of automated infantry, exemplified by Maxim's original concept of a variable rate of fire; from 'Slow' (two rounds per minute) to 'Fast' (500 rounds per minute).

As long as machine guns were fired from static, defensive positions, or heavy, wheeled carriages, their weight was not crucial. However, whereas other countries retained close copies of the Maxim, the British War Office demanded an improved version. Sheffield-based company Vickers were asked to redesign the gun. By flipping the gun's mechanism upside down, they were able to make it both smaller and lighter. In doing so, in 1912, they produced the Vickers gun; perhaps the definitive Maxim type machine gun, and much simpler to produce and maintain than Germany's own Maxim, the MG08.

Use and effect

This lightened design, alongside the Lewis light machine gun, formed the basis of new, offensive tactics used to help break the stalemate later in the war. British machine guns were originally allocated at division level. It took two expert gunners, Majors Baker-Carr and Lindsay, to advocate for the formation of a dedicated elite unit.

The Machine Gun Corps was formed in 1915 and provided small teams who could operate and deploy these guns where they were needed most on the battlefield. The tactics developed by the new MGC allowed British forces to take the fight to the enemy, and are still used today. 'Traversing fire', in which the gun was fired and pivoted left-to-right, was a relatively rare, defensive tactic. Much more common were accurate long-range fire and 'indirect' fire where the gunner used scientific techniques and tools to fire at targets that they could not actually see. Thousands of bullets would create a 'beaten zone' that would destroy any enemy that entered it. Barrage fire allowed machine guns to directly support infantry as they advanced, and overhead fire meant that guns would actually fire over their own soldiers heads.

The Vickers, properly maintained and supplied with water in its cooling jacket, was very reliable. It was claimed that in Savoy Trench on the Somme in 1916, ten guns fired one million rounds in a twelve hour period. The Maxim and Vickers, however, were far more complicated than traditional infantry weapons. A soldier lacking the necessary specialist training could no more become a Vickers gunner than he could a fighter pilot. The role became a specialist one, involving ten weeks of intensive training at the Machine Gun Training Centre at Grantham.

The Vickers itself was not withdrawn from British service until 1968. By this time, it had been replaced in front-line service by the gas-operated, air-cooled Belgian-designed L7 General Purpose Machine Gun. This replaced water-cooling with a replaceable barrel system, and is still in service today.

the deadliest of all the deadly machines which are now destroying the populations of Europe.

Havelock Ellis, 'Impressions and Comments', 1921

Statistics

• Date entered service - 1912
• Action / Operating system - Recoil
• Barrel length - 72.3 cm (28.4 in)
• Overall length - 1.155 m (43.5 in)
• Weight - 40.1 kg (88.5 lb) (with water & mount)
• Effective range - 2286 m (2500 yd)
• Maximum range - 3658 m (4000 yd)
• Feed - Belt
• Capacity (rounds) - 250
• Calibre / Bore - 7.7x56mmR (.303 in)
• Muzzle velocity - 744 m/s (2440 fps)
• Rate of fire (rounds per minute) - 550
• Crew - 6
• Country of manufacture - Britain
• Manufacturer - Lithgow, Australia
• Manufacturer - Vickers Crayford
• Manufacturer - Vickers Erith
• Primary operator - Britain
• Other operators - Australia
• Other operators - Canada
• Other operators - Germany
• Other operators - New Zealand
• Other operators - USA 

Mr B. McConnell, 1st Battalion, Royal Inniskilling Fusiliers

Mr McConnell took part in the Dardanelles Campaign and landed at Helles on 25 April 1915. He would be wounded and demobilised only a month later. In this interview, McConnell explains the roles of different men in a Vickers gun crew and describes a Turkish attack while his section was making tea.

I should say five or ten minutes afterwards I got wounded myself. The Vickers gun had been knocked off by a sniper the night before, so of course we couldn’t. There were no use in us looking through the sights so we had to look round the right of the gun to see where our bullets were striking, otherwise I think I would have had it through the head instead of through the arm.

Download a transcript of Mr. McConnell's interview

Development

The 'Lewis gun' was a refinement by U.S. Army Colonel Isaac N. Lewis, of an existing design by another American, Samuel McClean. The resulting weapon went on to define the light machine gun as a class of firearm. Machine guns like the Maxim family could fire more continuously and with accuracy at long range, but were heavy and had to be served by a crew of men. A 'light' machine gun would allow soldiers to take the fight to the enemy.

The Lewis was designed with a rifle-style shoulder stock, pistol grip, and carrying sling. Instead of a water-filled barrel jacket, the Lewis was air-cooled using a finned radiator fitted beneath a steel shroud. When fired, this created a 'venturi' effect, sucking the hot air forwards and drawing colder air in behind it. The belt feed system of the Maxim was replaced by a rotating 'pan' magazine, limiting capacity but keeping the gun light and easy to handle. Importantly, a clamp-on bipod was also designed to allow a stable firing platform, replacing the fixed tripod mount of the heavy machine guns.

Though an American design, the United States Army was reluctant to adopt Colonel Lewis's gun. Instead he turned to Europe.

Use and effect

The British army was the first to adopt the Lewis gun, which became part of important reforms to the deployment of machine guns. The heavy Vickers and Maxim guns, and their gun crews, were taken from the infantry to form the new Machine Gun Corps. The MGC would treat the Vickers more like an artillery piece, delivering fire where it was needed to support the infantry.

Meanwhile, infantry regiments instead received the Lewis gun. Firing the same cartridge as the Vickers and with a similar rate of fire, it was far easier for soldiers to carry, get set up, and use in the attack. Along with the Vickers gun, it enabled the changes in tactics that led to later British and Allied success.

The Lewis also became the first ever aircraft machine gun, fitted in flexible mounts on two-seat spotter aircraft, but also mounted above the wing even on later fighters like the SE5a. The cooling radiator was often removed, as cold air rushing over the barrel made it unnecessary. A bigger, 97 round magazine was used to limit the need for frequent and fiddly magazine changes in moving aircraft at freezing altitudes.

Statistics

• Date entered service - 1913
• Action / Operating system - Gas
• Barrel length - 76.7 cm (30.2 in)
• Overall length - 1.283 m (50.5 in)
• Weight - 11.8 kg (26 lb)
• Effective range - 800 m (880 yd)
• Feed - Drum magazine
• Capacity (rounds) - 47 or 37
• Calibre / Bore - 7.62x63mm (.30-06) (USA)
• Calibre / Bore - 7.7x56mmR (.303 in) (British Empire)
• Muzzle velocity - 762 m/s (2500 fps)
• Rate of fire (rounds per minute) - 550
• Crew - 2
• Country of manufacture - Britain
• Manufacturer - Birmingham Small Arms Company
• Manufacturer - Savage Arms Company (USA)
• Primary operator - Britain
• Other operators - Australia
• Other operators - Canada
• Other operators - Germany (captured)
• Other operators - New Zealand
• Other operators - USA

Mr. A.E. Brown, Second Battalion, Lincolnshire Regiment

The Maxim gun had revolutionised warfare but still proved too slow and cumbersome for offensive operations. Lewis guns were lighter and proved more useful for this purpose. Mr. A.E. Brown was trained in the use of the Lewis gun and describes how the change in tactics was reflected in how his unit was armed.

When I first went out there was only two machine guns to a battalion and men; and a battalion and men was about twelve hundred men, back end of 1917 up to 1918, I think there would be about two Lewis guns or three Lewis guns to a company.

Download a transcript of Mr. A.E. Brown's interview

Development

The proliferation of complex trench systems led to the widespread reintroduction of hand grenades like the British 'Mills bomb' from 1914. These provided a means of attacking an enemy otherwise protected by the cover of a trench, but had a very limited range of 30 m (33 yd) or so. This in turn led to the 'Hale' No.3 Mk.I rod-type rifle grenade of 1915, developed to convert infantry rifles into makeshift grenade launchers.

Grenades launched from a rifle could reach perhaps 140 m (153 yd), but still lacked an effective sighting system and had to be braced into the ground for firing. They could not be fired from the shoulder due to punishing recoil, which limited their usefulness in the attack. They also wore out the barrels and cracked the stocks of the rifles used.

One solution was to develop a dedicated grenade launcher weapon. Engineer Arnold Louis Chevallier immigrated to Britain prior to the War and came up with a wholly new design. He chose Herbert John Blanch of the London gunmaking firm J. Blanch & Son to build this, the only known prototype. The rear half of the launcher comprises a Martini tilting-block action previously used by the British army in the Martini-Henry and Martini-Enfield rifles.

In this case, a commercially produced .450 rifle made in the 1880s by the Braendlin Armoury Company was used. The rifle's barrel was replaced by a large barrel of 6.35 cm (2.5 inch) bore. This featured retaining clips at the muzzle and a sprung piston platform at the base. The grenade would have been launched by a .450 blank cartridge, with the large coil spring acting to dampen the resulting recoil along with a thick rubber butt-pad.

Use and effect 

The Blanch-Chevallier was never issued. In fact, there is no evidence to suggest that it was even trialled by the British War Office. Instead, they persisted with improved rod grenades and repurposed a much older solution in the form of the grenade cup discharger, introduced in 1917 as an accessory for the SMLE rifle. It is not possible to evaluate the effectiveness of Chevallier's design, but two drawbacks are evident.

Firstly, to soak up the recoil of firing, it had to be extremely heavy, and a supply of grenades would have added to the weight. This would have made the carrying of a rifle impossible, though a revolver could have been supplied for close-range fighting and self defence. Secondly, the weapon as constructed could not load the standard No.5 hand grenade or the No.3 rifle grenade. It would have required either that Britain tool up for production of its proprietary grenade, or that the weapon be redesigned to accept an existing type. Due to a lack of safety features, it would also have to carried without a blank cartridge in the chamber.

Despite its failure to attract official attention, Chevallier's idea for a shoulder-fired grenade launcher was ahead of its time. Whereas rifle grenades had to be fired braced into the ground, the recoil reduction system and tall tangent backsight were intended to allow the weapon to be fired from the shoulder. This would allow arcing indirect fire like a rifle grenade, but also permit launching at a shallower angle to land grenades in specific parts of a trench system. It could even be used for direct fire against groups of the enemy or targets behind cover.

This flexibility prefigured the American M79 launcher of the 1960s, used to great effect in Vietnam. In this, the huge weight of the weapon and large dampening spring were replaced by a lightweight break-action launcher and a clever high-low pressure ammunition-based solution. This 40mm grenade is still in use today in under-barrel grenade launchers and grenade machine guns, the ultimate expression of the grenade projector concept.

Statistics 

• Date entered service - Not issued
• Action / Operating system - Lever-operated tilting block
• Overall length - 80 cm (31.5 in)
• Weight - 7.1 kg (15 lb 10 oz)
• Effective range - Unknown
• Maximum range - Unknown
• Feed - muzzle-loaded
• Capacity (rounds) - 1
• Calibre / Bore - 6.35 cm (2.5 in)
• Muzzle velocity - Unknown
• Rate of fire (rounds per minute) - Unknown
• Crew - 1
• Country of manufacture - Britain
• Manufacturer - John Blanch
• Primary operator - Britain 

Development

The lance was first adopted by the cavalry of the British Army in 1816, after its effect in the skilled hands of Napoleon's lancers had been seen on the field of Waterloo (1815). Four regiments of Light Dragoons were converted to Lancers in 1816 and more would follow. Initially armed with a lance of 4.87 m (16 ft), this was soon found to be impractical and a lance of 2.75 m (9 ft) was soon adopted and remained the standard length of British lance for the 100 years it remained as a service weapon of the cavalry. In 1820, a steel ball was added to the base of the point of the lance in order to prevent over-penetration down the shaft, making withdrawal easier. The British abandoned the ball in 1840, although a rondel type 'stop' continued in patterns for the Indian cavalry.

From 1836, shafts of bamboo were used exclusively until 1885, when problems of supply and quality saw ash, treated with linseed oil and tar, reintroduced alongside bamboo. All lances had a hide sling wrapped around the midpoint of the haft which was looped round the arm when in combat, providing a secure grip for the hand and preventing the lance from being lost. On ash staves a leather protector sleeve was added to the bottom half of the shaft. This both provided a grip and prevented chafing to the shaft from the carbine when slung. This also enabled a 'D' ring to be attached so that the lance could be kept in the correct position when being carried in the stirrup bucket, which was ordered on all service lances in 1896.

From 1868 until its final withdrawal from service in 1927, the lance head remained unchanged. The blade was of thick triangular form and hollow ground. The head lacked langets from 1868 and was shellaced onto the shaft despite claims from British cavalry officers that this left the head vulnerable to being cut off in combat. This was remedied in 1894 by doubling the length of the socket of the lance head.

Problems with supply, or perhaps the desire to produce a more robust weapon for shock use, saw the British Army design an experimental steel shafted lance in 1915. This retained the same 1868 head but was never introduced to service. It is remarkable that even after the experience of trench warfare had begun, improved lance designs for the cavalry were still being explored.

Use and effect

Which weapon, the lance or the sword, was best for cavalry was a question that divided military opinions in the 19th century. If a consensus can be said to have existed it was that the lance required a great deal of training to use effectively. It was also widely acknowledged that lancers should also carry swords, for use in the melee when a lances' length could be a disadvantage. Unlike the German cavalry, who had the lance as their main arme blanche, or the French, who equipped approximately half of their total cavalry regiments with this weapon, the British use of the lance was much more select.

Following the failure of shock cavalry in the South African War, the lance had been withdrawn from the British cavalry in 1903 and was not reinstated until six years later. In 1914, only the six designated Lancer regiments of the 26 regular cavalry regiments were issued with the lance, and none of the Yeomanry regiments carried it. However, the cavalry regiments of the British Indian Army did contain a much higher proportion of lancers, and were renowned for being particularly skilled with the weapon. At El Hinu, during the Affair of Abu Tellul (14 July 1918) the Poona Horse and Jodhpore and Mysore Lancers of the Imperial Service cavalry killed over 90 Ottoman soldiers with the lance. They captured 100 prisoners and four machine guns. This included a successful charge against an entrenched position.

The deadly effect the lance could have is described by Second-Lieutenant Leche of the 12th Lancers. When, in 1914, his Squadron was able to take by surprise a dismounted force of German cavalry in the flank and could "just take the Huns like pegs":

Our lances did great work, though they didn't go in as far as one would think - about a foot in most cases. Several men also used the butt with very good effect, and one man got his lance through up to the sling!... The doctor said the wounds were terrible. Anyhow they squealed enough when they got it.

Statistics

• Date entered service - 1894
• Overall length - 2.76 m (9 ft 0.5 in)
• Weight - 2.19 kg (4 lb 13 oz)
• Country of manufacture - Britain
• Manufacturer - Royal Small Arms Factory, Enfield
• Primary operator - Britain

Frank Seeley, Lincolnshire Yeomanry

By 1914, developments in weapons technology meant that cavalry was no longer the decisive battle winner of the past. While cavalry switched to support or mounted infantry roles on the Western Front, horses continued to play a key role on the open plains of the Middle East. Frank Seeley describes the Australian cavalry charge at Beersheba in Palestine.

...the Australians galloped through Beersheba, they were not armed with swords but that did not matter to them, they fixed bayonets and galloped through with fixed bayonets on the horses

Download a transcript of Mr. Seeley's interview

Development

This sword marked a radical departure from its predecessors. Since 1822, British infantry officers had been armed with a combination cut and thrust sword with a half-basket hilt. Its slender, slightly curved, spear-pointed blade was pipe-backed: a feature that had become popular in officer's swords from about 1810 and was intended to add rigidity for thrusting. In 1845 this blade was replaced by a heavier, single fullered blade and the guard strengthened. The blade was now essentially an infantry version of the blade used for the contemporary 1821 patterns of Trooper's swords, but lighter and narrower as it did not have to withstand the shock of mounted use.

Although the general from of the 1822 and 1845 Infantry swords remained similar, the 1845 improvements made for a slightly sturdier, if heavier, fighting weapon. However as a cut and thrust weapon the 1845 sword was, by necessity, a compromise and by 1892 a new sword had been devised. Intended solely for thrusting, the blade was unlike anything that had gone before. The blade has no edge for the first half of its length, being identical front and back. These thick, rounded edges gave the blade great strength and rigidity, whilst a deep fuller along this portion of the blade meant the total weight was no more than its predecessor. The final half of the blade is flat and tapers into an acute spear-point.

From 1892-95, this new blade was mated to the 1845 half basket 'gothic' hilt. However, despite its strengthening, this guard left significant gaps through which the hand of the wielder could be attacked, and the brass could become bent with a strong blow. The result was the 1895 steel three-quarter basket hilt, with much reduced gaps and good overall hand protection. The backstrap of the new hilt was chequered along its length and was designed the thumb could sit on top, in a thrusting position. The final amendment to this sword came in 1897, when the inside of the guard was turned down, to sit comfortably against the side of the wearer.

Use and effect

Although designed as a fighting sword, the pistol had replaced the sword as the main weapon of the British infantry officer by the time Pattern 1897 entered service. Nevertheless, it was still carried in the field in the South African War and in 1899 a brown leather scabbard was introduced for active service. Reports from the latter part of the Mahdist War (1881-99) suggest that on the few occasions the patterns 1892-7 swords were used in anger it stood up well to the rigours of sword on sword combat.

Despite the obsolescence of the infantry sword when Britain declared war on August 6 1914, the order was still given throughout the army for officers to sharpen swords. This order was clearly followed as some Pattern 1897 swords show evidence of sharpening. The Pattern 1897 continues to be used today, albeit it in a purely ceremonial capacity, as part of the dress uniform of infantry officers of the British Army.

Statistics

• Date entered service - 1897
• Blade length - 81.5 cm ( 32 in)
• Overall length - 96.5 cm (40.4 in)
• Weight - 900 g (1lb 15.7 oz) (without scabbard)
• Country of manufacture - Britain
• Manufacturer - Wilkinson Sword, London
• Primary operator - Britain

Harry D'Arcy Jones, Worcestershire Yeomanry

Despite the manoeuvrability of cavalry, assaults on entrenched positioned with Maxim guns could still prove extremely dangerous. Harry D'Arcy Jones, who joined the Worcestershite Yeomanry before the outbreak of war, describes the results of a cavalry charge against an Ottoman position.

I remember when we reached the guns I saw our troop officer, coming into the right with his sword drawn, walking… Lost his horse you see

Download a transcript of Mr. D'Arcy Jones' interview

Development

This sword was the last attempt by the British Army to equip their cavalry with a combined cut and thrust sword. Since 1853 all cavalry, both Heavy and Light regiments, had been equipped with a universal cavalry sword of the same basic form. The blade was slightly curved with fuller running three-quarters of the length of each side. The final, unfullered, quarter of the blade was doubled edged and spear-pointed. This blade form remained unchanged, despite 50 years and six different patterns.

The first modification was to replace the three-bar hilt with a sheet steel bowl guard with a Maltese Cross pierced in it. In 1899 this too was changed to a larger plain bowl guard. From 1864 until 1890 a lighter, more manoeuvrable sword was sought, but when this proved deficiently weak, thicker, shorter blades with shallower fullers were reintroduced. However, these weighed more than the patterns that had been deemed too heavy some 25 years before. Not surprisingly therefore, the story of the Patterns 1853-1899 is largely one of complaint.

From the Crimean War to regimental testings to the Mahdist Wars, the overall reports on the performance of the British cavalry sword is one of dissatisfaction and failure. The Pattern 1899 was the heaviest of this family of swords and although its thick, short, blade meant it was unlikely to break in the rigours of mounted combat, it had its own share of faults. The desire to avoid a repeat of the press reported 'sword scandals' of the 1880's of trooper's weapons breaking in hand-to-hand combat meant though the Pattern 1899 was undoubtedly robust, it was clumsy and ill-balanced.

Use and effect

The Pattern 1899 was the standard service cavalry sword of the Second South African War. Although by this time the sword was more of an auxiliary weapon, with the rifle as the cavalry's main arm, it failed to be serviceable even in this marginalised role. On the few occasions that the British cavalry were able to close with the Boers, the Pattern 1899 sword proved defective. Colonel Robert Baden-Powell thought 'the present sword a perfectly useless weapon' and Major-General Sir John French, later commander of the British Expeditionary Force, remarked that the sword was 'the very worst that could be used by mounted troops.'

With an overly long, round grip and centre of balance far towards the point the sword required immense strength to use and was liable to turn in the hand, meaning the blade would not bite home. The Marquis of Tullibardine, commander of the Royal Horse Guards, thought this meant 'no one could possible use [the sword] without falling off if he really cut with it'. The Lieutenant-Colonel of the 18th Hussars described its failings at the Battle of Talana Hill:

A party of about 20 Boers were charged by half a squadron, 18th Hussars, the two parties met at full gallop and the Hussars did their best to cut down the enemy, till the latter threw their rifles away. The result was one man killed by a point and about eight wounded but none appeared to be much cut about and I believe more damage would have been done had the men be armed with heavy sticks.

By the time of the First World War the Pattern 1899 was no longer issued to the regular cavalry, although in the early months it was still in service with the Yeomanry, until sufficient numbers of the Pattern 1908 sword could be produced.

Despite its reputation as one of the worst cavalry swords ever in service with the British Army, there were some who were reluctant to see it replaced. At Cerisy, August 28 1914, Captain Bryant of the 12th Lancers, seven years after it had been withdrawn from service, was still 'using the old cutting sword' and claimed that 'well sharpened' he slew five of the enemy with it, his sword going 'in and out like a pat of butter.' Nevertheless, most cavalrymen were pleased to see the back of the Pattern 1899, and were only thankful to it in so far as its failing finally led to due care being spent on the design of its replacement.

Statistics

• Date entered service - 1899
• Blade length - 85 cm (33.5 in)
• Overall length - 1.02 m (40 in)
• Weight - 1.24 kg (2 lb 12 oz) (without scabbard)
• Country of manufacture - Britain
• Manufacturer - Royal Small Arms Factory, Enfield
• Primary operator - Britain

Development

The failure of the Pattern 1899 sword in the Second South African War provoked the establishment of committees and trials to arrive at an improved sword for the cavalry. Whereas previously, swords had been designed by cutlers, and submitted to the military for regimental trails, the design of the Pattern 1908 would take an altogether more scientific approach.

In 1903, a special committee was formed, including such distinguished cavalry officers as General Sir John French and Major General Douglas Haig, which dismissed the Pattern 1899 sword and, in a break from a tradition of over 50 years, determined that the new sword should have a straight and narrow, t-sectioned blade for thrusting. 200 experimental swords of this type were made and issued to cavalry regiments for testing in 1904. 

Although largely well received, there were still those of influence (notably Colonel Napier, the Inspector of Gymnasia and Captain Hutton, the sword and fencing expert) that objected to a pure thrusting sword. This saw further experimenting along cut and thrust swords of the old style which, not surprisingly, were found unsatisfactory.

In order to move forward, a new committee was established under Major-General Scobell in 1906 which consisted of a range of regimental officers who had a wealth of experience in mounted swordsmanship. Their remit was to decide upon a sword for the cavalry that was primarily for thrusting, and to devise accompanying sword exercises.

The committee examined 16 patterns of sword, including experimental types and cavalry swords in foreign service. After much deliberation the committee decreed that the sword should be as the 1904 experimental sword, straight and narrow, but with a chisel edge so it could be used, on occasion for cutting.

The sword makers Wilkinson and Mole produced a total of four experimental swords and, following some modifications, one of Moles was taken on for further trials. 500 swords were ordered from both Mole and Wilkinson, and sent for trails to regiments in Britain and India.

The changes between this experimental 1906 sword and the final recommendation of 1908 were only minor, and finally the British cavalry had a sword that was perfectly suited for shock action. The Pattern 1908's ergonomically sculpted grip, weighted pommel and thick, stiff, spear-pointed blade made it the perfect sword for delivering a thrust when mounted.

Despite the scientific nature of the sword's development, it still needed formal approval from Edward VII to enter service. The King thought it was a 'hideous' weapon and it took Generals French and Haig to convince him to do so. Even then, the King insisted that the new sword only be carried on active service, with previous types retained for ceremonial use. The great design success of the Pattern 1908 inspired George S Patton's design of the U.S. Model of 1913 Cavalry Sword.

Use and effect

The opening weeks of the war saw cavalry at the forefront and ample opportunity for the Pattern 1908 sword, and its officer variant the Pattern 1912, to be tested in combat. It was with a sword of this type that the first British kill of the War was made, by Captain Hornby, 4th Dragoon Guards, in a skirmish with the German 4th Cuirassiers. Hornby had followed the new drills where it was stated:

In the charge against both Infantry and Cavalry, each man should ride at his opponent at full speed with the fixed determination of running him through and killing him - hand and arm simply directing the point - the impetus being sufficient to drive the point home

In the Eastern theatres of Syria and Palestine there was much more occasion for mounted shock action throughout the whole War. Against a moving target, however, executing the new drills could be difficult in practice, despite high levels of training. At the highly successful charge at El Mughar, 13 November 1917, Captain Bulteel of the Royal Buckinghamshire Yeomanry stated:

Blown and galloping horses are not exactly "handy", so it was nearly impossible to get at a dodging Turk. One missed and missed again until the odd one wasn't quick enough'. However, when contact was made it seems the new sword and drill performed admirably: 'In just such a case the hours of arms drill paid off for instinctively one leant forward and remained so, to offset the jerk as the sword comes out - in fact, precisely as one had been warned.

The success of cavalry in Syria and Palestine even led to the Pattern 1908 being issued more widely to mounted rifle brigades. It was reasoned, especially after the heroics of 4th Australian Light Horse at Beersheba who used the bayonet in lieu of swords, that the issue of swords would enable mounted units to act with greater determination and speed in the attack, as opposed to dismounting and fighting with the rifle alone. In the closing stages of the War in the East, this decision was proved right numerous times.

One such occasion was at Jenin, 20 September 1918, where Australian Light Horse, newly equipped with the Pattern 1908, captured a large Turkish force at sword point. Although the development of the tank saw cavalry eventually disappear, this was not a quick transition. The last time British sword armed cavalry were deployed on active service was in the Second World War, against the Vichy French in Syria in 1941. Today the Pattern 1908 is no longer issued as a combat weapon, but is still carried ceremonially by cavalry regiments of the British Army.

Statistics

• Date entered service - 1912
• Blade length - 89 cm (35 in)
• Overall length - 1.08 m (42.5 in)
• Weight - 1.347 kg (2 lb 15.5 oz) (without scabbard)
• Country of manufacture - Britain
• Manufacturer - Royal Small Arms Factory, Enfield
• Primary operator - Britain

Development

The designer of this bayonet was Captain Arthur Pritchard, who enlisted into the Royal Berkshire regiment in early 1915 at the age of 17. He returned to Britain in 1916 and approached Wilkinson Sword with the idea for a bayonet for the Webley Mark VI service revolver. His idea was to create a small bayonet made from the tip of the 1897 Infantry Officer's sword. The problem Wilkinson Sword had at that time was that it was already producing the 1907 bayonet for the SMLE rifle as well as the 1908 Cavalry Trooper's sword and it was seen as quite impractical for them to cut down existing swords not to mention the cost of labour involved in assembling these bayonets. Pritchard's idea was too difficult for them to achieve at this time.

Pritchard's bayonet instead was produced at Greener's, a rival of Wilkinson Sword. Much of their business was reconditioning obsolete weapons. The company had a surplus amount of Model 1874 Gras bayonets, which were used in place of the 1897 sword tip. Although the manufacture of the bayonet was labour intensive the cost was cut by recycling the Gras bayonets. Two patterns of this bayonet were produced, the common gunmetal hilted version and the rarer steel hilted version. Both of the same form, it is likely that change to gunmetal might have been for economic reasons rather than practical reasons.

Use and effect

The Pritchard-Greener bayonet was never a standard issue of the British Army. It could be purchased privately by officers and would probably have been a useful addition to trench raiders to use in close-quarter combat but few were made and no evidence exists to prove they were used in the trenches. However, one can imagine the psychological boost it would have provided to men leaping into enemy trenches from No-Man's Land. It would also have served as a potentially useful backup weapon, if the revolver misfired or ran out of ammunition.

Statistics 

• Date entered service - about 1916
• Blade length - 26.6 cm (10.5 in)
• Overall length - 32 cm (12.6 in)
• Weight - 460 g (1 lb)
• Country of manufacture - Britain
• Manufacturer - W.W. Greener
• Primary operator - Britain

Development

The lack of a British issue trench weapon saw commercial opportunities for civilian manufactures. One of the most prolific was Robbins of Dudley, who had been manufacturing basic blacksmith ironwork since 1876. With the onset of trench warfare, they turned their attention to designing and producing a variety of unique weapons for private sale to troops heading off on active service.

These included unusual miniature curved sabre types with stirrup-hilted guards, double-edged short swords and even rare variants with South-East Asian kris style blades. The most popular types were push daggers and Robbins devised at least four variants on this theme, with this type being the most common.

Use and effect

Designed to be used in a punching motion, some versions had a pommel spike to enable a downward strike. Many were originally blackened to be inconspicuous at night. Despite the short tang making the blade liable to break, this remained one of the most popular private purchase daggers amongst British troops.

Statistics

• Date entered service - 1914
• Blade length - 12.4 cm (4.8 in)
• Overall length - 15.5 cm (6.1 in)
• Weight - 190 g (6.8 oz) (without sheath)
• Country of manufacture - Britain
• Manufacturer - Robbins of Dudley
• Primary operator - Britain

Development

The British Empire did not issue a purpose-made trench dagger, so cutlery companies offered a wide range for private purchase. As such, the British were amongst the most enthusiastic producers of knuckleduster knives, and designs exist from before the War. It seems that this type of weapon, with its emphasis on the knuckleduster element rather than the knife blade, appealed to British sensibilities.

Colonel the Rt. Hon. Sir John Macdonald wrote a series of articles during the War imploring the issue of a trench dagger to British troops in an attempt to overcome the pervasive feeling that the use of the knife or dagger in warfare was somehow unsoldierly and un-British. His pleas went unanswered, but the popularity of this compact design seems to suggest the British serviceman's aversion to pure daggers was at least partially true.

Use and effect

British weapons of this type were trialled by the American Expeditionary Force in 1918, resulting in their heavy, brass knuckleduster knife Model of 1918 Mark I Trench Knife. This British knuckleduster knife also inspired the BC 41 Commando knuckleduster knife of the Second World War.

This weapon was almost identical to its predecessor, save for having pointed, rather than rounded metal 'knuckles. It was issued as a fighting knife of the British army until superseded by the Fairbairn-Sykes fighting knife. Knuckleduster knives later fell out of favour in military circles as more sophisticated dagger-style fighting techniques were developed.

Statistics

• Date entered service - 1915
• Blade length - 12.2 cm (4.8 in) - broken
• Overall length - 29.2 cm (8.5 in)
• Weight - 178 g (6.3 oz) (without sheath)
• Country of manufacture - Britain
• Manufacturer - Sutherland & Rhoden
• Primary operator - Britain

Development

The war in the trenches saw the reintroduction of many weapons long thought obsolete. Staff weapons had not been a serious battlefield arm of the infantry since the development of the bayonet in the 17th century. The nature of warfare on the Western Front, however, saw all types of ancient weapons revived.

The pike had survived in naval warfare however and new British patterns of boarding pikes were being created as late as 1894. Much like repelling hostile boarders of an enemy ship, trench pikes fulfilled a similar function. Of a handy length, they could have been used for defending trenches from enemy raids or assaults, perhaps left at strategic points so they could be quickly grabbed by defenders. The broad disc-like shoe on the bottom would have prevented the weapon from sinking into the mud of a trench and its blade covering would have protected it from the elements. A simple pike would be much better suited, and less dangerous, to being left exposed and readily to hand like this than a rifle. Lighter and more manoeuvrable in the cramped conditions of a trench than a rifle fitted with bayonet, its simplicity and total lack of working parts meant it could function in all conditions.

Use and effect

The pike has a thick, flattened diamond-sectioned blade that is well suited for thrusting. On some versions the blade is detachable; thus the quillons serve as both a hand guard when used as a dagger, or as a stop to prevent over-penetration when used as a spear. It is possible this kind of pike was an issue version of weapons that had been at first improvised in the trenches. Frank Richards of the Royal Welch Fusiliers commented on seeing two soldiers preparing for a raid by 'fixing knives on to a couple of broomsticks with some sticking plaster'.

The infamous wire cutting or 'death companies' of the Italian Army sometimes made rudimentary pikes of their long hafted wire cutters, by affixing bayonets onto the ends of the device. Heavily armoured to protect themselves in their dangerous task, such armoured pikemen were a sight that had not been seen in war for three hundred years.

Yet this was not to be the last time pikes were issued by the British military. In the Second World War, the threat of invasion in 1942 saw the pike once again reinstated as a temporary weapon of war for the Home Guard. Many of these were produced by welding the large stores of, the now obsolete, Pattern 1907 bayonets onto metal pipes.

Statistics

• Date entered service - 1914
• Blade length - 20.9 cm (8.2 in.)
• Overall length - 1.58 m (62.1 in.)
• Weight - 1.21 kg (2 lb. 10.6 oz) (without sheath)
• Country of manufacture - Britain
• Manufacturer - Unknown
• Primary operator - Britain

Development

This unique form of 'new or improved trench knife' was patented by Felix Joubert. Joubert was a renowned armour restorer who had worked at Windsor Castle and the Wallace Collection, and also a sometime faker of antique arms and armour who sold to unsuspecting collectors.

The 'Welsh knife' was purchased by Thomas Evelyn Scott-Ellis, eighth Baron Howard de Walden, for equipping the battalion he was second in command of with a weapon for trench fighting, between 1916 and 1917. De Walden was a military man who had served with the 10th Hussars in the Second South African War and on his return to Britain joined the 2nd County of London Yeomanry. An accomplished fencer who was a member the British 1908 Olympic squad, this passion led to his interest in arms and armour, especially that of the medieval period and of his native Wales.

As a result of this hobby, he commissioned Joubert to construct him a bespoke reproduction 14th century harness so he could better understand how armour worked. When the War began, De Walden made repeated requests to find a more active posting, and was subsequently sent to Gallipoli. On his return to England in a staff role, Lord Howard used his family connections to gain transfer to the front. Soon he was appointed second-in-command of the 9th Battalion, Royal Welch Fusiliers; a post in which he remained until he was recalled to the War Office in December 1917.

From 1915, there had been open debate in the press and military journals about the lack of a standard issue trench knife for British servicemen. It seems that De Walden was moved by such debates and decided to address the matter for his own battalion by privately commissioning Joubert to design a suitable weapon. Joubert claimed in his patent application that the knife was based on 'the well known and historic Welsh cledd'.

However, no form of such knife is known to exist and it seems likely this was a connection Joubert made to appeal to the nationality of De Walden and his regiment. Instead Joubert's design appears to be based upon the leaf-shaped swords of the late Bronze Age found throughout Europe. His weapon is a much broader, more robust version than the sword types it is based upon and was well suited to the rigours of life in the trenches.

The addition of a 'skull-cracker' pointed pommel is so that even the base of the 'Welsh knife' can be used offensively, if there is no room to employ the weapon blade first. A wrist loop through the hilt to prevent the weapon being dropped in combat was added along with a folding guard protected the hand, and also enabled the weapon to be worn flush to the body when sheathed. Some blades were engraved 'DROS URDDAS CYMRU', which translates as 'For the honour of Wales.'

Use and effect

The weapon was carried by the battalion's Lewis gunners at the Battle of Messines, June 1917, as they are recorded as having advanced 'carrying the strange knives furnished by Lord Howard de Walden'. Lieutenant-Colonel Lloyd-Williams, who later in the War was second in command of the battalion, stated that 'all machine gunners and bombers were always equipped', with this knife and 'every member of a raiding party was so armed'. Certainly surviving numbers would corroborate this claim as although rare, surviving numbers suggest there were more produced than would have been needed for the battalion's 17 Lewis gunners.

The effectiveness of the 'Welsh knife' as a weapon is more in doubt. Lloyd-Williams claims it was used with 'conspicuous success' at Messines Ridge but his claim that it was 'more for bayoneting than cutting' seems not to suit the weapon's design. Its broad blade is certainly intended as a cutting weapon; as such a large point would have made effective thrusting difficult. However the rigidity of the blade would have lacked the flexibility for a good cutting stroke and the thick blade edge would have been difficult to sharpen well. The great weight of the 'Welsh knife' would have made it a fearsome weapon, as being of all metal construction it is much heavier than most contemporary trench clubs, but the stiff, thick blade would have been more likely to cause blunt force trauma than cut or puncture efficiently.

Nevertheless, although this weapon was probably designed with more style than substance in mind, in order to appeal to the tastes of its purchaser, the 'Welsh knife' did look forward as well back in terms of the development of arms and armour. The 'Welsh knife' inspired the design of the Smatchet fighting knife of The Second World War by the renowned hand-to-hand combat expert and innovator, Lieutenant-Colonel William E. Fairbairn.

Statistics 

• Date entered service - 1916
• Blade length - 44.8 cm (17.6 in)
• Overall length - 60 cm (23.6 in)
• Weight - 1.03 kg (2 lb 4 oz) (without scabbard)
• Country of manufacture - Britain
• Manufacturer - Felix Joubert, Chelsea
• Primary operator - Britain

Development

Clubs and maces reappeared in the early months of 1915 as a stalemate set in and trench raiding for prisoners, intelligence gathering, and simply to dominate 'no man's land' was attempted by both sides. Although clubs were used by all the warring nations, they were particularly popular with British troops. This was due in part to no standard trench dagger being issued to them and perhaps also, at least initially, because British troops looked on daggers unfavourably as an assassin's weapon rather than a soldier's.

The majority of trench clubs were not improvised by the soldiers that would use them but purposefully manufactured by supporting arms. The Royal Engineers cast flanged mace heads in their thousands which were then fitted to the standard British entrenching tool handle. These were produced from 1915-18 and in one week alone, the Hazerbrouck Workshops had over three thousands of these weapons in store, ready to be issued.

Another common British version is this lead-filled truncheon type club, with hobnails hammered into the head. Again, this type would have needed to be purposely manufactured, rather than improvised in the field.

Use and effect

A suitably weighted club could be fiercely effective, even against helmeted opponents. Private Stephen Graham of the Scots Guards describes a six man raiding party, all being armed with clubs coming across the enemy:

(they) flew at them and pounded their heads with clubs and down went one Fritz in a heap. One was killed, the other bruised and overwhelmed.

It seems 'one sharp blow on the head from one of these' was usually enough to kill or disable an enemy for capture.

Statistics

• Date entered service - 1915
• Overall length - 45.7 cm (18 in)
• Weight - 450 g (1 lb)
• Country of manufacture - Probably Britain
• Manufacturer - Unknown
• Primary operator - Britain

Development

The War Department believed that the Belgian designed self-igniting hand grenade would be a valuable asset for British soldiers in the trenches. Patented in 1912 by Captain Leon Roland of the Belgian Army, the Compagnie Belge de Munitions (CBdM) was established in order to market the grenade to a British manufacturer. The task was given to William Mills of Mills Co. An experienced engineer, he was given the task of redesigning the grenade, making it safer and more efficient than its Belgian counterpart.

After a few false starts, in 1915 Mills sent prototypes to the troops in France of his cast iron bodied, egg shaped grenade. Eventually this prototype became the No.5 Mark 1 and was the first British hand grenade ever to be issued on such a large scale. Resembling a small 'pineapple' due to its segmented outer form, these segments were originally designed to fragment. Due to the nature of explosives, however, they failed to do so, but instead provided a firm grip in the wet conditions of the trenches.

Use and effect

To detonate the grenade the safety pin had to be removed. Once the pin was pulled out, by use of the attached ring, the user would hold the lever down and prepare to throw. When thrown, the lever would release. As the lever released, the striker would drop onto a percussion cap, the blast from which lit the fuse. This burned for five seconds before it reached the detonator. A good bomber would have to be able to throw a bomb to a distance of around 30.5 m (100 feet), protecting themselves from the blast. It was deemed that cricketers, especially those with a good bowling arm, made the most effective bombers. 

The No.5 grenades were supplied to the infantry in wooden chests, each containing 12 grenades, with a tin of igniter sets. These complete detonator units each comprised the detonating charge, a 5-second fuze, and a cap chamber housing the initiating percussion cap, along with a base plug key. Arming a Mills bomb was straightforward, requiring only that the base plug be unscrewed, the detonator assembly inserted and the plug screwed back down. This was always done ahead of time and whilst in cover, but remained an inherently risky task. Private Clarrie Jarman, a scout bomber of the 7th Queen's Regiment recalled:

There was a bang and screams and the stretcher bearers went at the double to some poor devils who had let their concentration wander.

These grenades were an essential part of trench warfare, in particular during raids. Interestingly, notes from a bombing course that took place at the School of Arms in Hythe in January 1920, still taught the tactics of bombing a trench. It has to be concluded that the lessons learned from the War impacted on the future of bombing and what tactics to use to gain optimum effect.

Consisting of eight men and one N.C.O. in order to storm a trench you would need to be in the following formation:

• Man No. 1) A rifleman, equipped with three bombs for emergency. His primary task was to 'precede the party down the trench and by means of his bayonet repel enemy onslaught.'
• Man No. 2) A bayonet man, who passed back messages from the rifleman to the thrower.
• Man No. 3) The first thrower, carrying up to 12 bombs. 'His duty is to bomb the main trench as far forward as possible.' Man
• No. 4) Acts as carrier to the thrower. Assists with throwing where possible, his primary duty is to bomb communication trenches.
• Man No. 5) The N.C.O., who is also equipped with a few bombs.
• Man No. 6) The second thrower, whose task is to also bomb communication trenches. He stops and bombs the communication trench until another section from the rear takes over. He also replaces the third man if he becomes a casualty.
• Man No. 7) Assists the sixth man as a carrier and auxiliary bomber.
• Men No. 8 and 9) Rifle bombers. They carry 12 bombs and an ample supply of rods (which are inserted into the grenade at one end and into the barrel of the rifle at the other) so if necessary they can use the throwers bombs and vice versa.

The third and fourth men should be together if possible, as well as the eighth man with the ninth, but bunching the section together is to be avoided as the whole party may suffer from one bomb.

Statistics

• Date entered service - 1915
• Overall length - 10 cm (3.9 in)
• Weight - 760 g (1 lb 10 oz)
• Effective range - 18 m (20 yd) (kill zone)
• Country of manufacture - Britain
• Manufacturer - Mills Munition Factory
• Primary operator - Britain

Thomas Nash, Private, Manchester Regiment

Different types of grenade were developed throughout the First World War. This included 'Jam-Tin' grenades, where old food containers were filled with explosives and bits of old metal, such as cut up bits of barbed wire, and thrown at the enemy. By 1915, the No. 5 Mills bomb was being issued to British and Commonwealth soldiers on the Western Front and Thomas Nash describes in detail the terrible impact it could have on a person.

At the end of those ten minutes we got orders to over the top and the best of luck, so up a small ladder we went out of the trenches into no-man’s land, with our bayonets fixed all ready... to meet Germans face to face. That was a terrible hour of death, to see men blown up in the air, blown to atoms with explosives, machine gun bullets killing, just lay there on the floor passing by.

Download a transcript of Mr. Nash's interview

The First World War was expected to be mobile, fast moving and over quickly. Notoriously, the Western Front instead became a gigantic siege. To break this stalemate, heavier artillery was constantly demanded. This railway howitzer is the only survivor of the British Army's biggest guns. 

Artillery was the most destructive weapon of the First World War and caused the most casualties. Heavier and heavier guns were required to support the infantry trying to achieve the elusive breakthrough against an enemy dug in ever more stubbornly on the Western Front. The heaviest artillery could only be deployed by rail. 

Just four 18-inch railway howitzers were built. They were not brought into action before the Armistice in 1918 but one was stationed at Dover during the Second World War. The original 18-inch railway mounting was much longer than this Victorian proof sleigh, which was used for range trials until 1959. 

I remember there was an elderly couple standing by their cottage near where we were shooting and every time we fired their roof lost a few more tiles... A lump of (German) shrapnel went through the ammo wagon...we picked up some pieces and worked out that they were 15" shells. 

David Collyer on 'Boche Buster' in about 1941, from "Somewhere in England..." in Bygone Kent, 1982 

Development

The idea of bringing artillery and rolling stock together seems to have initially been undertaken during the American Civil War (1861-1865) when a 13-inch Mortar was mounted on a flatcar. During the Anglo-Egyptian War (1882), Admiral Sir Percy Scott placed naval landing guns on railway wagons to help protect troop trains and 4.7-inch guns similarly mounted were used during the Boer War in 1900. During the First World War, railway artillery seemed to be the answer to the glutinous mud that affected the Western Front and all the belligerents deployed some form of it.

The British were able to draw on reserve naval and coast defence guns with the 9.2-inch being the first in 1915: others included the 12-inch Howitzer and the 14-inch. Indeed a 14-inch Mark III gun mounted on the carriage 'Boche-Buster', firing in the presence of King George V in 1918, scored a direct hit on a German troop carrying train at Douai Railway junction at his suggestion and became known as the King's Shot.

As the German subterranean defences of the Hindenburg Line became deeper and more robust, General Headquarters in France in 1917 requested a heavier more penetrative projectile which meant larger, weightier artillery. The Elswick Ordnance Company of Newcastle started work on an 18-inch Howitzer barrel in 1918 but of the five earmarked (L1-L5), none were completed before the end of the war and did not enter British service until 1920.

Use and Effect

In the inter-war period, one of the barrels was selected for periodic ballistics trials and found either at Shoeburyness, Salisbury Plain, or at the Royal Arsenal, Woolwich. Later, in 1940, during the early part of the Second World War, the threat of a German invasion focussed Winston Churchill's attention an apparent weakness in the coast defences of the south-east.

He hit upon the brilliant idea of contacting the surviving King's Shot detachment commander, Major Monty Cleeve, to scour the country for any surviving heavy artillery that might be used to make good any deficiencies, especially around Dover in Kent. This proved very successful, with an 18-inch Howitzer barrel being mounted on one of the converted 14-inch carriages and railed to Kent.

Another surviving 18-inch barrel (L1), placed upon a Victorian converted Railway Proof Carriage, was retained at Shoeburyness for trials into the penetration of concrete which commenced in 1943. This was of particular interest to the Royal Air Force and quite probably Barnes Wallis of 'Bouncing-Bomb' fame, who was keen to develop an air-dropped super-bomb of 10 tons capable of destroying viaducts or penetrating 20-feet of reinforced concrete - soon to become known as 'Grand Slam'.

It was, of course, far simpler to undertake a test of this kind using artillery rather than having to modify a Lancaster and take a crew from front-line duty. L1 and its Victorian mounting were eventually purchased by the Royal Artillery Historical Trust in 1991 and displayed at the Rotunda, Woolwich and the Royal Artillery Barracks, Larkhill before coming to Fort Nelson on loan in 2013.

Statistics

• Date entered service - 1920
• Action / Operating system - Cordite propellant
• Barrel length - 16.47 m (648.4 in)
• Length of Sleigh - 7 m
• Weight - 87,075 kg
• Range - 20.92 km (13 miles)
• Calibre - 347 mm (18 in)
• Projectile weight - 1135 kg
• Rate of fire (rounds per hour) - 2
• Muzzle velocity - 570 m/s (1880 fps)
• Crew - 24
• Country of manufacture - Britain
• Manufacturer - Elswick Ordnance Co. Newcastle
• Primary operator - Britain

Mr. C. Reynolds, Private, King's Own Yorkshire Light Infantry / Machine Gun Corps

60% of battlefield deaths in the First World War were caused by artillery. Advances in size and firepower made howitzers and mortars dangerous over distances far greater than any rifle bullet. Machine gunners, such as Mr. Reynolds, found themselves particular targets of bombardment, who explains the situation.

It started in the night. Ooooh shelling like the devil, you could feel the feel the thud of the soil you know, and then it all went quiet and we looked up and they all got out the from the guns and had to run, to the right, back where the headquarters was.

Download a transcript of Mr. Reynolds' interview

Development

The German tradition of bolt-action rifles was second only to that of the French. Prussia and France had clashed in 1870, and the cultural memory of that war was strong throughout the First World War. German fears of civilian insurgency was the cause of much brutality in Belgium and France, and France for her part sought revenge for her defeat. This bitter rivalry was reflected in a small arms race between the two nations.

The Prussian army adopted the original single-shot bolt-action Mauser immediately after the Franco-Prussian War, and this was developed by the Mauser brothers, Peter Paul and Wilhelm, into what became a world standard rifle, rather like the Kalashnikov today. The ultimate variant was the Gewehr 98; the culmination of a series of commercially successful rifles that began with the Model 93 sold to Spain in 1893. The rifle's ammunition was designed for the Gewehr 88, an otherwise unsuccessful German military rifle not part of the Mauser family.

Germany was the first to introduce the pointed 'spitzer' (spire-shaped) or 'S' bullet. Unlike the flat-based British .303, this was a truly modern design with an aerodynamically shaped 'boat' tail. The 7.92mm round was also powerful enough to project the special armour-piercing 'K' bullet through the side of the early British tanks.

A range of bayonets were issued for the G98, the most common being the S84/98 with 25.3 cm (10") blade. Yet the most famous today is the 'saw-back' variant of the S98/05 sword bayonet. This was demonised in British propaganda as the 'butcher blade', implied to have been designed to cause needlessly horrific wounds. In fact, bayonet blades with serrated backs had been commonly used for more than a century by both Britain and Germany. They were actually intended for issue to pioneer and engineer troops who might have a need to cut wood.

Use and effect

The robust, reliable, powerful and accurate Mauser had excelled against the British in the hands of Boer guerrillas, but did not provide an edge in 1914. Though very large and well-equipped, the German army lacked experience of modern warfare. The much smaller British Expeditionary Force had recent combat experience in South Africa and the North West Frontier (present-day Afghanistan).

As a result, whilst it forced the BEF into fighting retreat, it suffered disproportionately heavy casualties against the less accurate Lee-Enfield rifle in these early battles. Any advantage in terms of rifle technology, therefore, was with the ten-round magazine capacity and rapid action of the SMLE.

As for the 'butcher blade', in practice this would not have caused any more severe a wound than the smooth S98/05. Both were broad cutting blades that created correspondingly wide wound channels. This assumes that the blade would reliably penetrate the layers of cloth and leather that an enemy soldier would be wearing, as a great deal more force would be required to push the blade home than a spike blade like that of the French Lebel.

Statistics

• Date entered service - 1898
• Action / Operating system - Bolt
• Barrel length - 74 cm (29.1 in)
• Overall length - 1.25 m (49.2 in)
• Weight - 4.09 kg (9 lb)
• Effective range - 550 m (600 yd)
• Feed - Internal magazine
• Capacity (rounds) - 5
• Calibre / Bore - 7.92x57mm (.31 in)
• Muzzle velocity - 878 m/s (2881 fps)
• Rate of fire (rounds per minute) - about 15
• Country of manufacture - Germany
• Manufacturer - Amberg arsenal
• Manufacturer - Danzig arsenal
• Manufacturer - Deutsche Waffen und Munitionsfabriken
• Manufacturer - Erfurt arsenal
• Manufacturer - Haenel Sauer & Sohn
• Manufacturer - Leipzig arsenal
• Manufacturer - Mauser
• Manufacturer - Simson
• Manufacturer - Spandau arsenal
• Manufacturer - V. Chr. Schilling Co.
• Manufacturer - Waffenwerke Oberspree
• Primary operator - Germany
• Other operators - Ottoman Empire

Development

The Mauser Modell 96 or 'Mauser C96' as it is also known, was patented in 1895, and was one of the earliest self-loading pistols to enter military service. Much of the design had been done by the Feederle brothers who worked for Mauser, however it was Peter Paul Mauser (1838-1914) who patented and produced it at his arms factory at Oberndorf.

Mauser began his career as a gunsmith in the Royal Württem Arms Factory. With the help of his brother Wilhelm, Mauser designed the Model 1871 breech-loading rifle which, after improvements, was accepted into German military service as the Modell 1871. The German military initially passed on the C96, however the weapon found great success on the civilian market, mostly with hunters due to its ability to transform into a type of carbine. This was achieved by adding the iconic walnut stock to the rear of the grip. This stock is multi-purpose as it also acts as the carrying device for the weapon. A carbine version of the C96 with a 240 mm (9.4 in) barrel was also developed.

The calibre of the early C96 pistols was predominantly 7.63x25mm. The Feederle brothers adapted and used the Borchardt cartridge in their design for this pistol. The 7.63x25mm Mauser cartridge used the same design and dimensions as the Borchardt C93, however it was loaded with a stronger powder charge and a slightly heavier bullet.

Variations of this weapon were produced with different magazine capacities. All variants loaded via the breech with aid of a stripper clip, and a six shot, a ten shot, and a 20 shot magazine were all produced in 7.63mm. A ten shot magazine for the 6 mm version was also developed. Shortly before the outbreak of the First World War, Mauser began to produce C96 pistols in 9mm Parabellum for export. These were widely available on the Chinese market.

Use and effect

Although the C96 was widely available on the commercial market, by 1908 around 70,000 had been produced. Most notably, the Italian Navy had ordered around 6,000 pistols for naval use and the Sultan of Constantinople's body guards were equipped with this pistol. Its first true taste of military action was during the second South African War, where it was very popular amongst British officers.

Due to a lack of Luger pistols during the First World War, the C96 in 9mm was adopted by the German army in 1917. These pistols were clearly marked with an engraved '9', usually in red paint on the grip, to avoid confusion with the 7.63mm calibre. With its stripper clip loading system, the C96 was not as quick to load as many other self-loading pistols of the trenches such as the Colt Model 1911 or the Luger.

It was also a bulky pistol. The range, however, which could be achieved with a stocked C96 was considerable compared to any other pistol of this conflict. It continued to be developed during the 1920s; most famously the 'Bolo' version of the pistol had a shorter barrel and was exported to Russia. It also continued to feature in warfare throughout the Second World War.

Affectionately referred to as 'Broomhandle' due to the grip, the strange form of the C96 made it the perfect candidate for Hollywood. Featured in the original Star Wars trilogy, a C96 modified with external props was used by Han Solo and, on occasion, by Luke Skywalker. The DL-44 blaster pistol has become almost iconic as the original C96.

Statistics

• Date entered service - 1896
• Action / Operating system - Recoil
• Barrel length - 14 cm (5.5 in)
• Overall length - 31 cm (12.3 in)
• Weight - 1.13 kg (2 lb 8 oz)
• Effective range - 150-200 m (164-218 yd)
• Feed - Internal magazine
• Capacity (rounds) - 6, 10 or 20
• Calibre / Bore - 7.63x25mm (.30 in)
• Calibre / Bore - 9x19mm Parabellum (.36 in)
• Calibre / Bore - 9x25mm Mauser (.36 in)
• Muzzle velocity - 425 m/s (1394 fps)
• Country of manufacture - Germany
• Manufacturer Mauser
• Primary operator - Germany
• Other operators - Britain
• Other operators - Italian Navy
• Other operators - Sultan of Constantinople's body guards

Development

This self-loading pistol will forever be known as the 'Luger' after its designer Georg J Luger. However, it was originally named the 'Parabellum', derived from the Latin phrase Si Vis Pacem Para Bellum ('if you want peace, prepare for war'), company motto of manufacturer Deutsche Waffen und Munitionsfabriken (DWM).

Luger was tasked with redesigning an existing pistol that had been invented by Hugo Borchardt in 1893. Luger retained the successful mechanical aspects of the design, but made it much more compact and user-friendly. The design was finalised and patented in 1898, and was first adopted in 7.65x21mm calibre (derived from the Borchardt round) by the Swiss in 1900. The German Navy followed suit four years later with the Pistole 1904.

The definitive version for the German Army entered service in 1908 along with the equally famous 9x19mm cartridge designed for and named after this pistol. Later, a long-barrelled variant with a shoulder stock was produced for artillery crews.

Use and effect

The natural 55 degree grip angle and superior sights of the Luger made for relative accuracy. Unfortunately, the excellent fit of the toggle lock and other moving parts meant that even a small amount of dirt or wear could cause a jam. This could be a problem in trench conditions. The design was also expensive to produce. The way forward for self-loading pistols was therefore instead represented by the American Colt M1911 and John Browning's slide-based recoil system.

Nonetheless, the Luger was the first successful military self-loading pistol, and was manufactured in large numbers through two world wars. Its iconic appearance and association with the enemy made it a sought-after souvenir for Allied soldiers. Additionally, although the pistol itself was a technological dead end, the 9x19mm 'Parabellum' cartridge afforded an excellent blend of power, size, weight, and recoil. For this reason, it has far outlived the Luger pistol and, over a century after its introduction, is now the most widespread military and law enforcement cartridge in existence.

The Luger was produced by two main manufacturers before and during the First World War. DWM produced the original 7.65x21mm version from 1900, before commencing manufacture of the 9x19mm Pistole 1908. The example illustrated here is extremely rare, being the first ever P08 to be produced at the Erfurt state arms factory in 1911. Every component is marked with its serial number '1'.

This weapon also saw service, and features two regimental marks on the front strap. The first '12.T.S.1.8' denotes the 12th Train Battalion, Sanitaets company 2, weapon # 18. Sanitaets companies were Ambulance and Medic companies. The 12th was a train battalion from Saxony and part of the 19th army corps. The 2nd company was garrisoned in Leipzig.

Later, presumably after war had broken out, a second mark on the weapon ('177R') shows that this same pistol was re-issued to a front-line infantry unit. This was Infanterie-Regiment Nr.177 (Königlich Sächsisches 12), or the 177th (12th Royal Saxon) Infantry. They had been created on 1 April 1897 in Dresden, and formed part of the XII Army Corps.

It is not known how this pistol came to be captured by British troops, although British soldier Harry Drinkwater, author of the memoir 'Harry's War', encountered this unit in a separate action for which he won the Military Cross. Taking part in a raid against a trench held by the 177th, Harry was wounded by a bullet. Nonetheless, he stopped to tear an epaulette from the greatcoat of a fallen German soldier as evidence of which enemy regiment occupied this trench.

Statistics

• Date entered service - 1908
• Action / Operating system - Recoil
• Barrel length - 10.2 cm (4 in)
• Overall length - 22 cm (8.75 in)
• Weight - 890 g (1lbs 15 oz)
• Effective range - 50 m (55 yd)
• Feed - Box magazine
• Capacity (rounds) - 8
• Calibre / Bore - 9x19mm Parabellum (.36 in)
• Muzzle velocity - 329 m/s (1080 fps)
• Country of manufacture - Germany
• Manufacturer - Deutsche Waffen und Munitionsfabriken
• Manufacturer - Erfurt arsenal
• Primary operator - Germany

Development

Artillery crews in the First World War manned guns of immense destructive power, however they still required a self-defence weapon. Rifles were too large and heavy, and pistols were limited by their short barrels and one-hand design to use at very close range. A pistol carbine was proposed to bridge the gap - with a shoulder stock, long barrel and long-range sights. Crews could keep this weapon on them at all times without it getting in the way or weighing them down, but could still fight effectively to defend their position if called upon.

Georg Luger had designed and marketed several of these carbines for commercial sale to target and recreational shooters, which eased development of this new military equivalent. The flat paddle-style stock also contained a leather holster, rather like that supplied with the progenitor of the Luger series, the Borchardt C93. With stock detached and the pistol inserted in it, the whole package was almost half the size. Pistols had been provided with long barrels and stocks since flintlock days, the best known being the Mauser C96 'Broomhandle'.

What set the new Luger apart was a high capacity drum magazine; the first of its type. These feature a spiral arrangement to fit as many cartridges as possible, and a clock-style spring that must be wound before use to push rounds into position. This was bulky for artillery use, and instead formed part of the equipment of a new type of soldier; the assault trooper (Stosstruppe).

Use and effect

Far from treating the LP 08 as a defensive weapon, assault troops would enter enemy trenches and hit them hard at close range with rapid, decisive gunfire and explosives. To fulfil this role, unlike its original purpose as a seldom-used sidearm, the LP 08 would have had to function reliably for perhaps hundreds of rounds without servicing or even cleaning. The complicated Luger mechanism, with its close manufacturing tolerances, was therefore not ideally suited to the role.

Like the Luger itself, the drum magazine had to be carefully maintained and stored to prevent jamming. The use of the Luger platform did mean that if a stoppage occurred, the operator could discard the drum, clear the jam, and insert a spare standard capacity Luger magazine to continue fighting. Whilst the LP 08 was not capable of fully automatic fire, it nonetheless allowed soldiers to deliver an unprecedented amount of firepower from a pistol-sized weapon. This was due to the high capacity of the drum magazine and the stability offered by the shoulder stock. The low recoil of the cartridge kept shots on target at close range, and the precision sights allowed for accurate single shots out to at least twice the effective range of a normal pistol.

The LP 08, in its assault role, also inspired the Bergmann MP 18,1 submachine gun and with it, a whole new class of weapon. In 1922, this configuration was marketed as a rival to the new Thompson submachine gun by the Pacific Arms Corporation of California, who dubbed it a 'Baby Machine Gun'.

Statistics

• Date entered service - 1914
• Action / Operating system - Recoil
• Barrel length - 20.3 cm (8 in)
• Overall length - 66.7 cm (26.3 in)
• Weight - 2.035 kg (4 lb 49 oz)
• Effective range - 100 m (109 yd)
• Feed - Box Drum magazine
• Capacity (rounds) - 8 or 32
• Calibre / Bore - 9x19mm Parabellum (.36 in)
• Muzzle velocity - 350 m/s (1148 fps)
• Country of manufacture - Germany
• Manufacturer - Deutsche Waffen und Munitionsfabriken
• Manufacturer - Erfurt arsenal
• Primary operator - Germany

Development

In 1888, Kaiser Wilhelm II fired a Maxim gun. He was so impressed that he ordered that his Dragoon Guards to be equipped with a number of these early guns. By 1892, a formal contract had been signed with the British-based Maxim Nordenfelt Company for the first German Maxim guns. Standing on the side lines of the Russo-Japanese War in 1902, Germany was among the first countries to recognise the potential of the machine gun in modern warfare.

The firm Deutsche Waffen und Munitionsfabriken (DWM) was commissioned to develop an improved gun. As with the Vickers gun, the British equivalent, the biggest concern was weight and all efforts went into reducing this by using lightweight materials. This resulted in the MG 08, which despite some claims to the contrary, was only 3 kilograms heavier than the more comprehensively redesigned British Vickers. It did, however, retain the bigger, boxier receiver of the original Maxim gun as well as its mechanical complexity. The MG 08 comprised of 235 individual parts compared to the 144 of the Vickers.

What drastically increased the total weight of the package was the gun's mount. Instead of the typical tripod, a four-legged collapsible sledge mount (the 'Schlitten' 08) was developed. This was extremely stable but was even larger and heavier than the solid brass tripod of the Vickers. It was designed to be dragged into position, but the churned muddy ground of the Western Front made this difficult.

Finally, a veritable suit of armour was produced for the MG 08, including shields shaped to fit the water jacket. Gun crews were sometimes also issued the 'Sappenpanzer' steel body armour and 'Stirnpanzer' brow plate for their helmets adding yet more weight to carry.

Use and effect

The fact that Germany was content to persist with a more complex and heavier system reflects adherence to tactics developed prior to the First World War. These emphasised the strength of the machine gun as a short range, defensive weapon. Over two thirds of German small arms ammunition was expended by their machine guns, which primarily operated in this defensive role. Even where guns were supplied with optical sights and men trained in offensive tactics, they were taught to use direct fire when the enemy was visible. Little effort was expended developing the advanced long-range firing techniques that would later help to win the war for the Allies.

Historians have tended to blame the high number of Allied casualties seen during the Allied counter-attack of August 1914 upon the numerical superiority of German machine guns. In fact, many of those guns were not deployed at the front line, and the successful use of the MG 08 in the defence was much more important. The more complicated MG 08 and its heavier mount did give a slight edge to the more portable and easier to produce Vickers gun as the war came down to a duel between machine guns.

Britain was able to catch up with Germany in production rates and pioneered the development of more dynamic machine gun tactics from 1915. In response, lightweight trench mounts were invented for the MG 08. These consisted of a simple block of wood which seriously compromised the gun's effective range. The introduction of the MG 08/15 light variant gave the infantry mobile firepower but was also inaccurate at long distances. The MG 08 and 'Schlitten' 08 remained essential therefore.

Nonetheless, it is easy to overstate these minor technical disadvantages. Any edge that the British Vickers had over the MG 08 seems to have been overcome by effective training. The MG 08 deployed with only a four man crew, two less than the Vickers. All told there was little between the two guns and differences in tactics proved far more important. Improved German tactics and new guns were in development by 1917 - the same year the United States entered the war, bringing decisive industrial resources and manpower with her.

Statistics

• Date entered service - 1908
• Action / Operating system Recoil
• Barrel length - 72 cm (28 in)
• Overall length - 1.175 m (46 in)
• Weight - 62.2 kg (137 lb) (with water & mount; another 6 kg with armour shields)
• Effective range - 2286 m (2500 yd)
• Maximum range - 3658 m (4000 yd)
• Feed - Belt
• Capacity (rounds) - 250
• Calibre / Bore - 7.92x57mm (.31 in)
• Muzzle velocity - 900 m/s (2953 fps)
• Rate of fire (rounds per minute) - 450
• Crew - 4
• Country of manufacture - Germany
• Manufacturer - Deutsche Waffen und Munitionsfabriken
• Manufacturer - Erfurt arsenal
• Manufacturer - Spandau arsenal
• Primary operator - Germany
• Other operators - Austria-Hungary
• Other operators - Britain (captured)
• Other operators - China
• Other operators - Ottoman Empire

Development

By 1915, all nations had recognised the power of the machine gun and the fact that they had fought each other to a trench-based stalemate. To overcome this, they would need the right blend of tactical innovation and new or improved technology. Heavy, mounted machine guns could produce devastating sustained fire but could not easily react to changing battlefield conditions or be carried forward by attacking infantry.

To remedy this, each nation attempted to produce automatic rifles to be fired on the move, or true light machine guns. The latter could be quickly deployed using a bipod for a stable firing platform, but easily picked up and moved as necessary. Being less bulky and closer to the ground, they would also present a smaller target to the enemy. Some nations invested time in new designs like the French Chauchat, or looked at pre-existing solutions as in the case of the British Lewis gun.

The German approach was to commission the state arsenal at Spandau to modify the standard heavy MG 08 machine gun. The big, boxy receiver was reduced in size and slightly lightened, and the weapon was fitted with a shoulder stock and pistol grip. For stability, a bipod and sling were provided. Unlike a brand-new design, the gun was quick and easy to manufacture due to its familiar design and shared parts. As a result, it was put into service in good time, and met the immediate needs of the German army.

Use and effect

Though on hand when Germany needed it, the MG 08/15 was inherently a compromised design. Its immediate Maxim heritage left it with the same belt-feed and water-cooling systems of its bigger brother. These gave it the ability to give greater volumes of fire when required, but seriously compromised its ability to function as a light machine gun.

The weight of the weapon, together with several litres of water moving around inside the water jacket would have made for a unwieldy package for a gunner sprinting forward to a new firing position. Retaining the complexity of the MG 08 also required a very large support team, even though only one man was allocated to actually carry and fire the weapon. The overall result was an extremely heavy 'light machine gun' that was regarded as adequate by soldiers, but not outstanding in any way.

An improved version, the MG 08/18, was designed with the water jacket replaced by a slotted jacket, converting the weapon to air-cooling. This limited its ability to fire large volumes of ammunition, but reduced its weight by around 3 kilograms and better suited its intended role. A carrying handle, today standard on light and general purpose machine guns, made it possible for the gunner to carry the weapon with one hand.

This new weapon came late in the war and very few were actually produced. As a result the MG 08/15 remained the primary German light machine gun until the end of the war. Perceptions of the 08/15 as a decidedly average weapon actually gave rise to the German phrase 'Null-acht-fünfzehn', still in use today to mean 'average' or 'bog standard'.

Statistics

• Date entered service - 1915
• Action / Operating system - Recoil
• Barrel length - 72 cm (28 in)
• Overall length - 1.45 m (57 in)
• Weight - 20.8 kg (46 lb) (with water)
• Effective range - 800 m (875 yd)
• Feed - Belt
• Capacity (rounds) - 100 or 200
• Calibre / Bore - 7.92x57mm (.31 in)
• Muzzle velocity - 900 m/s (2953 fps)
• Rate of fire (rounds per minute) - 450
• Crew - 1 gunner plus 8 crew
• Country of manufacture - Germany
• Manufacturer - Deutsche Waffen und Munitionsfabriken
• Manufacturer - Erfurt arsenal
• Manufacturer - Spandau arsenal
• Primary operator - Germany

Mr Teague, Colonel, 8th Battalion, Royal Warwickshire Regiment & 3rd/4th Battalion Baluchistan Infantry

The advent of automatic weapons made attacks on enemy positions during the First World War extremely perilous. Mr. Teague, with the Royal Warwickshire Regiment, conveys the onslaught of machine gun fire his platoon endured and his attempts to help a wounded fellow officer.

The men were just going down like nine pins, I virtually had no contact with my platoon. We went over as a line, got into this terrific fire and I just simply saw men being mowed down on either side.

Download a transcript of Mr. Teague's interview

Development

The MG 15, not to be confused with the 1930s weapon of the same designation, was a German answer to the American Lewis light machine gun. Like the similarly named but entirely different MG08/15 (based on the Maxim gun), it was a compromise redesign derived from a heavy machine gun. Unlike the 08/15, it did away with a heavy water cooling system in favour of a slotted barrel jacket.

The weapon's designer was Louis Schmeisser, father of the famous Hugo Schmeisser, known for creating the first submachine gun ever issued (the MP 18,1), amongst other designs. Machine guns are almost always designed to fire with an open bolt, allowing cold air to cool the mechanism and prevent overheating. Unusually, the MG 15 was redesigned to fire when its mechanism was closed, creating the MG 15nA (neue Art - new Model). This change of approach was necessitated by the unreliability of the open bolt version.

Both versions were also developed as aircraft machine guns, where cold air at altitude negated cooling problems. For air service, the rate of fire was boosted to 800 rounds per minute, increasing the probability of a hit on an enemy aircraft.

Use and effect

Though substantially lighter (5 kg / 11 lbs) than the MG 08/15, the MG 15 did not replace it in service, and saw relatively little German use on the ground, being more successful as an aircraft machine gun. A number were also issued to the Asia Korps sent to assist the Ottoman army, and may also have been supplied directly.

The closed bolt redesign solved inherent reliability problems with the design, but would have made for a less effective machine gun that required periodic cooling. The primary advantage of the Bergmann aside from low weight was that it could be fed from various standard lengths of belt. This included a 100-round belt inside a 'Kurbel' drum holder clipped to the side of the weapon. This was more convenient than a long dangling belt, but gave more than twice the capacity of the enemy Lewis gun.

The weapon also pioneered the use of disintegrating metal links, which later replaced cloth belts and are now a standard feature. These are clipped together with rounds of ammunition, and break apart on firing, being ejected from the weapon along with the empty cases. When necessary, new lengths of belt can easily be created by collecting the used links and clipping them together with fresh rounds.

Statistics

• Date entered service - 1915
• Action / Operating system - Recoil
• Barrel length - 71.6 cm (28.2 in)
• Overall length - 1.12 m (44.1 in)
• Weight - 12.9 kg (28.4 lb) (with bipod)
• Effective range - 400 m
• Feed - Belt
• Capacity (rounds) - 100, 200, or 250
• Calibre / Bore - 7.92x57mm (.31 in)
• Muzzle velocity - 892 m/s (2925 fps)
• Rate of fire (rounds per minute) - 500
• Crew - 1
• Country of manufacture - Germany
• Manufacturer - Bergmann Industriewerke
• Primary operator - Germany
• Other operators - Austria-Hungary
• Other operators - Ottoman Empire

Development

The MP 18,I was the first of an entirely new class of weapon. In 1915, the German army requested a hand-held, short-range machine gun for attacks by assault troops against enemy trenches. By 1917, designer Hugo Schmeisser had created the first submachine gun. This is a retrospective term coined in 1921 by Colonel Thompson of Thompson submachine gun fame; the German term was (and remains) 'machine pistol'.

The key ingredients were the existing Luger pistol cartridge and 32 round 'artillery' drum magazine, and a new blowback mechanism. This was simple and easy to maintain, consisting of a heavy tubular bolt that flew forward when the trigger was pulled and, in one motion, collected a round from the magazine, pushed it into the chamber, and fired it. The bolt then recoiled against a spring to repeat the process for as long as the trigger was held down and ammunition was available. This system was potentially hazardous, as banging the butt on the ground could result in the entire magazine being fired unintentionally.

The MP 18,I was modified post-war to accept a straight box magazine instead of the complicated and unreliable drum magazine. Contrary to some sources, this improved weapon was not the 'MP 18,II', a designation that does not exist outside of a misprint in a German manual. The designation remained the same until the further improved MP 28,II was produced.

Use and effect

The MP 18,I reached front line troops in August 1918, too late to see much use in the war, and was limited to use by Stosstruppen (assault troops). Relative to the low power of the cartridge it fired, it was heavy, but short and convenient for close quarter battle. Its weight and low rate of fire made automatic fire very controllable and single shots possible without the need for a selector switch. Effective bursts could be fired from the shoulder using the fixed, rifle-style stock.

As would become the norm with portable automatic weapons, at ranges of less than ten metres, the Bergmann would more often be fired instinctively and from the hip. Acknowledging the need to maintain a supply of ammunition, each weapon was served by a crew of three; one gunner and two assistants who carried chests containing 448 rounds.

The weapon, along with the improved MP 28,II with safety catch and selector switch, went on to arm Germany's inter-war security services. The type was also produced in Switzerland and exported, and original German examples saw limited service in the Second World War.

Importantly, it spawned a whole generation of submachine guns based on the same mechanism. The first British submachine gun, the Lanchester machine carbine, was a straight copy of the MP 28, itself a direct derivative of the original Bergmann. This family of weapons also gave rise to the nickname 'Schmeisser' to describe a submachine gun, which was later misapplied to the more famous MP 40 encountered by the Allies in the Second World War.

Statistics

• Date entered service - 1918
• Action / Operating system - Blowback
• Barrel length - 19.8 cm (7.8 in)
• Overall length - 81.3 cm (32 in)
• Weight - 4.17 kg (9 lb 3 oz)
• Effective range - 200 m (219 yd)
• Feed - Box magazine
• Capacity (rounds) - 32
• Calibre / Bore - 9x19mm (.36 in)
• Muzzle velocity - 329 m/s (1080 fps)
• Rate of fire (rounds per minute) - 450
• Crew - 3 (1 gunner, 2 assistant gunners)
• Country of manufacture - Germany
• Manufacturer - Bergmann Industriewerke
• Primary operator - Germany

Development

The first use of tanks by the British during the Battle of the Somme in 1916 came as a shock to the Germans. Whilst primitive and slow-moving compared to modern tanks, they were resilient to (though not totally proof against) rifle fire, machine gun fire, and bursting artillery shells. They showed the way forward in terms of breaking the deadlock of trench warfare and replacing the loss of the cavalry as mobile military units.

Aside from field artillery, the Germans had no real counter to this totally new threat. Soldiers experimented with reversed bullets, which British tests confirm were more effective at close range in penetrating armour plate. Later, the Germans issued the armour-piercing 7.92mm 'K' bullet for rifles and machine guns. Recognising that this would trigger an inevitable arms race between projectiles and thicker and harder armour, efforts were also made to create specialised anti-tank weapons.

A new type of machine gun was developed to fire an enormous new 13.2mm cartridge against tanks and aircraft. This round was created by scaling up the 'K' bullet, which had a hardened steel core with a lead mantle and full metal jacket. The bullet weighed a tremendous 802 grains (52 grams) compared to the 185 grains (12 grams) of the infantry rifle version. This gave it the mass required to punch through armour, whilst the large propellant charge provided the necessary velocity.

As the MG 18 machine gun was being developed, an anti-tank rifle was also proposed. Work on the more complicated machine gun proved to be slow, and only the mechanically simple 'T-Gewehr' was produced in numbers sufficient to see action. This was little more than a scaled-up Mauser 98 rifle. Its enormous proportions were essential in making it strong enough to contain the high pressures generated by the 13.2mm round. To this end, the number of locking lugs on the bolt was doubled to four.

Use and effect

The boiler-plate steel armour of the first British tanks was unhardened and only 8 to 15mm thick. It was easily penetrated by the T-Gewehr at up to a range of 300 metres. The outer portion of the 13.2mm bullet would be stripped away on impact but the steel penetrator would continue on, tumbling and travelling sideways into the interior of the tank. Metal spalls from the tank's own armour would add to the destruction inside.

The rifle was usually deployed with a crew of two; one shooter and one spotter, as would become standard practice for military snipers. The spotter would direct the shooter onto the target and observe fall of shot with a pair of binoculars. Two to three rifles were supplied per regiment.

Fired from cover, it was unlikely that the targeted tank crew, with severely limited vision, could effectively identify the threat and return fire. Other tanks and infantry, however, would immediately seek the snipers, who would be forced to withdraw. This was to be expected; all snipers and machine gunners received similar special treatment from the enemy.

A lack of any dampening or muzzle brake system led to punishing recoil for the shooter, which became the main drawback of the design. Another disadvantage was the absence of a magazine, limiting the opportunity for quick follow-up shots. The spotter could load the rifle to mitigate this limitation.

After the war, the T-Gewehr was banned by the Treaty of Versailles, and saw no further use, though it is believed that the Germans continued to manufacture it in secret. The weapon directly inspired the British .55 calibre Boys anti-tank rifle and the .50 calibre Vickers and Browning machine guns.

After tank armour had become essentially proof to rifle bullets of any kind, a whole generation of Anti-Materiel Rifles (AMRs) emerged. Some of these, including the US Barrett M82/M107, still use the .50 Browning Machine Gun cartridge based on the original T-Gewehr round. Since then, the anti-tank role has passed to rocket-propelled grenades and guided missile systems. Today, AMRs are instead used to attack lightly armoured vehicles, structures, and also human targets at extreme range or behind heavy cover.

Statistics

• Date entered service - 1918
• Action / Operating system - Bolt
• Barrel length - 98.4 cm (19 in)
• Overall length - 1.68 m (39 in)
• Weight - 17.7 kg (39 lb)
• Effective range - 500 m (547 yd)
• Feed - Single shot
• Capacity (rounds) - 0
• Calibre / Bore - 13.2x92mmSR Mauser 'Tank und Flieger' (.52 in)
• Muzzle velocity - 780 m/s (2650 fps)
• Rate of fire (rounds per minute) - about 10
• Crew - 2
• Country of manufacture - Germany
• Manufacturer - Mauser
• Primary operator - Germany

Development

Until 1889, the lance was only carried by Germany's regiments of Uhlans (lancers). Following Kaiser Wilhelm II's statement that the lance was the 'Queen' of weapons, all German cavalry regiments were issued with them. This reequipping of German cavalry, along with a standardisation of drill based on a single type of cavalry ('Einheitskavallerie'), meant that by the War the only difference between German cavalry types was their uniform. All would fulfil the same role, and all had the lance as their primary mounted weapon.

The favoured material for the construction of lance hafts in the late 19th century was bamboo, however German lacked the colonies to provide this in sufficient quantities. This, along with a strong tradition and infrastructure of steel works, led to the adoption of an all steel, tubular lance, and with a chequered leather grip. Once assembled, the lance was not meant to be taken apart, making transport problematic.

Use and effect

The Stahlrohrlanze was longer than both its French and British counterpart, and seems to have been used more in a couching fashion where possible. Certainly General von Poseck in his accounts of the German cavalry's actions in France and Belgium 1914 always references lances being lowered and couched against targets, rather than swung or jabbed with. This was seen in the overrunning of a rear-guard of French infantry at Rocquigny, 25 June 1914. Here, the Guard Cavalry Division charged with 'such impact that many of the French were killed outright with the lance.'

The Stahlrohrlanze had a design flaw in its fixed eyelets for attaching pennants of state colours for parade, just below the blade. Even though pennants were not attached for combat by 1914, the eyelets could not be removed and could become stuck in a target, especially following the deep penetration that would result from couched use.

The balance and length of the Stahlrohrlanze also seems to have caused problems to its users when fighting other cavalry. The short, thick, square section blade was extremely strong, useful when couching, but lacked enough of a point to penetrate easily when not used with the force of a charging horse behind it. In August 1914, both the 17th and 18th Cavalry Divisions purposely sharpened their lance points as in skirmishes their patrols 'had made the discovery that the unsharpened points had often been deflected by the clothing of the opponent.'

Also, the great length of the Stahlrohrlanze made it hard to manage in a mounted melee. Private Tilney of the 4th Dragoon Guards could 'easily parry' the lance thrusts of his German opponent but could not reach him with his sword due to the lance's length. In tighter confines, German cavalry were at a disadvantage against sword armed cavalry as the balance and length of their lances made parrying with them all but impossible, and once the point had been passed, the lancer was vulnerable.

At Casteau, August 22 1914, Trooper Worrell remarked:

The Jerries couldn't manage their lances at close quarters and several of them threw them away and tried to surrender but we weren't in no mood to take prisoners and we downed a lot of them before they managed to break it off and gallop away.

Statistics

• Date entered service - 1890
• Blade length - 12.6 cm (4.9 in)
• Overall length - 3.14 m, originally 3.20m (10' 3", originally 10' 6")
• Weight - 2.12 kg (4 lb 10.8 oz)
• Country of manufacture - Germany
• Manufacturer - Gewehrfabrik, Danzig
• Primary operator - Germany

Development

Following the unification of Germany in 1871 under the Prussian King, most of the smaller German states were adsorbed into the Prussian army and adopted their military system. Despite this, the larger armies of the kingdoms of Bavaria, Saxony and Württemberg retained characteristics of their uniform and heraldry. That is why in 1889, when new sword patterns were produced for the German army, some state variation was still tolerated. A degree of consistency can be found in scabbard forms however, with those between 1889 and 1906 being nickel plated and those produced after 1906 being painted black or chemically blued.

The sword is almost like a miniaturised Kurassier's Pallasch (Dragoon Sword), with a long, straight, spear-pointed blade, and cocked grip. The blade is usually doubled fullered but single fullered or even flat bladed versions existed. Not being intended as a primary combat weapon, its hilt is distinctive and more decorated than that of the three bar hilt of the Pallasch. The Infantry Officer Degen 89 has a fixed, decorative, semi-basket guard, whereas privately purchased versions often had folding guards. The guard contains a Prussian Eagle and this, or the royal cypher of Kaiser Wilhelm II, was usually applied to the grip.

Use and effect

The blackening of the scabbard and inclusion of a 'Fingerschlauf', a leather loop for inserting the fingers when holding the sword in a thrusting position, suggests the sword could have been used on active service, however in practice it was more a badge of rank than a weapon. The extreme lightness of the sword meant that it had little practical value as a weapon and German infantry swords soon disappeared from the battlefield at the start of the War. Some German officers took to wearing a more practical dagger, with officer's sword knot affixed, as a continuation of displaying their status.

Statistics

• Date entered service - 1889
• Blade length - 83.5 cm (32.8 in)
• Overall length - 98 cm (38.6 in)
• Weight - 608 g (2 lb) (without scabbard)
• Country of manufacture - Germany
• Manufacturer - Weyersberg, Kircschbaum & Cie, Solingen
• Primary operator - Germany

Development

This model of sword was carried by all light cavalry troopers of the Imperial German Army. Only Kurassiers and Schwere Reiters, which totalled, at 14 regiments, just 10% of Germany's cavalry regiments in 1914, were considered heavy cavalry. Uhlans, Hussars, Dragoons and Chevaulegers were all armed with the Kavalerie Degen 89. Prior to the standardisation of the German cavalry in 1889, all these light cavalry regiments, apart from Uhlans, relied on the sword as their main weapon.

The piped backed, quill-pointed blade of the Kavalerie Degen 89 was of the same form as the Prussian Modell 1852/79, but with a shorter, straighter blade and simplified guard, resulting in a lighter sword. The crest on the guard varied according to the state that each regiment came from, whether Prussia, Bavaria, Saxony, or Württemberg.

The heavy cavalry regiments continued to carry their massive, straight bladed Pallasch (Dragoon Sword), which was little changed from the Napoleonic Cuirassier sword it was modelled upon 100 years before.

Use and effect

From 1889, the sword became an auxiliary weapon for all German cavalry troopers as the lance was introduced to all regiments, heavy and light, as their primary mounted weapon. Along with carbines for dismounted action, this relegated the sword to the trooper's fourth weapon, behind even the pistol which could be fired from the saddle with some success at close range. As such, few accounts exist of the Kavalerie Degen 89 in action.

Officers seemed to have often not carried a lance, but the wide variety of swords they carried makes evaluating the effect of the Kavalerie Degen 89 problematic. The account of Lieutenant Baron von Buddenbruck of the 1st Guard Dragoon regiment striking an English cavalry officer 'square across the face' but failing to stop him issuing orders would fittingly describe the lack of cutting ability of the Kavalerie Degen 89. Its stiff, straight blade, cocked handle and fore-finger grip mean the sword is designed for thrusting, not cutting.

Because of this, and due to its relegation in the importance to German troopers, British cavalrymen found that the majority of cavalry swords captured from the Germans had not even been sharpened along their edge. An unwelcome encumbrance to a cavalryman's load, the sword was being phased out as part of the troopers' equipment as early as 1915.

Statistics

• Date entered service - 1889
• Blade length - 81.3 cm (32 in)
• Overall length - 95.3 cm (37.5 in)
• Weight - 907 g (2 lb) (without scabbard)
• Country of manufacture - Germany
• Manufacturer - Alexander Coppel, Solingen
• Primary operator - Germany

Development

Germany, with its strong tradition of blade manufacturing, was the first nation to issue specifically designed trench daggers. Produced by a variety of manufacturers, the basic blade and grip remained similar whilst a variety of guard types were used. Most had a symmetrical cross guard or a down turned quillon, like the Mauser 98/05 bayonet. Those issued by the war departments are often stamped with a government acceptance mark on the back of the blade.

Even before the trench dagger was developed, German troops were better equipped than their opponents with regard to knives. All soldiers were issued with a utility clasp-knife (Tasschenmesser), the locking blade of which made it a viable fighting weapon. As early as October 1914, German Dragoons were using this knife in combat when assaulting, on foot, the town of Richebourgh St. Vaast. In 'furious street fighting' the Dragoons 'employed pocket-knives as a substitute for the bayonet which they lacked'. A clasp-knife, however, cannot be drawn and used quickly, and the fixed bladed sheath dagger was soon issued as a dedicated fighting weapon.

Use and effect

Although the sheath came with a belt loop, the dagger was often worn tucked into the boot, and these daggers were known by some as jackboot knives for this reason. Unlike in the Allied armies, there was no aversion to dagger carrying amongst the German military.

With the decline of the infantry sword, officers in the British and French armies had turned to canes and sticks for substitute badges of rank. German officers and NCOs by contrast wore daggers or bayonets, often decorated with sword knots instead. This, as well as its strong tradition of hunting knives, is why knives and daggers were much more readily accepted by German soldiers as appropriate weapons, rather than those of assassins. This distinctive form of trench dagger continued to be used by German soldiers until the end of the Second World War.

Statistics

• Date entered service - 1915
• Blade length - 15.2 cm (6 in)
• Overall length - 22.5 cm (8.8 in)
• Weight - 201 g (10 oz) (without sheath)
• Country of manufacture - Germany
• Manufacturer - Ernst Busch, Solingen
• Primary operator - Germany

Development

These multi-purpose weapons were officially purchased by the German war ministries and issued to assault troops (Stosstruppen and Sturmtruppen), as Germany recognised the need for a more handy weapon than the Mauser 98/05 bayonet. Available for private purchase, machine gunners often wore them as a side-arm, alongside the Parabellum Pistole 08. Orders from the War Ministry in Berlin saw these weapons gradually issued more widely to standard infantry, in addition to assault troops and machine gunners.

On 8 May 1915, six of these knives were issued per Infantry Company, with this being doubled to 12 on 29 February 1916 and again doubled to 24 on 26 June 1916. This rapid scaling up of official issue of the weapon coincided with increased trench raiding.

Use and effect

It seems that these weapons were issued, and privately purchased, as both bayonets and trench daggers - not just as a substitute for both. Photographs exist of the Demag-Dolch being worn alongside both bayonets and the more common standard German trench dagger. The tradition of combined combat dagger-bayonets persists today, as almost all the bayonets issued with contemporary infantry service rifles fulfil this dual function.

Statistics

• Date entered service - 1915
• Blade length - 13.9 cm (5.47 in)
• Overall length - 25.4 cm (10 in)
• Weight - 220 g (7.7 oz) (without sheath)
• Country of manufacture - Germany
• Manufacturer - Demag, Duisburgh
• Primary operator - Germany

Development

The Modell 24 Stielhandgranate, or 'stick grenade' was devised in 1915 and developed throughout the War. With its long handle and what resembled a cylindrical metal tin at the end of the handle, the Allies gave it the nickname of 'the potato masher'.

The first pattern of Stielhandgranate had a permanently revealed pull cord protruding from the bottom of the handle. These cords occasionally caught and detonated the grenades whilst being carried, causing severe injuries and occasional fatalities. The German army rectified this design flaw in 1916 with the second pattern by introducing a screw cap on the base of the stick. The hook on the tin allows the grenade to be fixed to a belt, which was ideal for raiding parties.

The Stielhandgranate was used throughout the First and Second World Wars, with various refinements taking place. Cold climates could cause the Model 24 to fail to detonate. A special explosive powder was used in those destined for the Eastern Front, and these were marked with 'K' meaning 'Kalt' (which translates as cold) stencilled on the cylindrical tin. Gradually, the Modell 24 was superseded by the Modell 43 in 1943 and eventually replaced in 1945.

Use and effect

Like the British Mills bomb, the stick grenade's fuses were inserted prior to action, usually at a safe distance from others. A reminder for the user to insert his detonator was written on the cylindrical tin which contained the explosive charge. It read 'Vor Gebrauch Sprengkapsel einsetzen', which translates to 'Before use insert detonator'. Once the detonator was in place the grenade was ready to take into combat. In order to detonate the grenade, the base cap was unscrewed revealing the cord weighted down with a porcelain ball. Once the cord was pulled, a friction wire was dragged through a chemical mixture, igniting the grenade.

The second pattern has a delay of 5.5 seconds before exploding. This gave the thrower ample time to produce sufficient distance. Most German bombers could throw a distance of around 35 yards (32 m), although from the prone position this range would be reduced. In the case of a 'dud' throw, the design of the stick grenade reduced the risk of it rolling back, like a mills bomb would on slightly angled ground. The flaw in this design was the relative size of the grenade, which made it easier for the Allies to spot and throw back.

Statistics

• Date entered service - 1915
• Overall length - 35.4 cm (13.9 in)
• Weight - 350 g (12.3 oz)
• Country of manufacture - Germany
• Manufacturer - Unknown
• Primary operator - Germany

Development

The threat of succumbing to a sniper's bullet was a reality for all who inhabited the trenches of the First World War. Keeping one's head below the line of sight was essential. In order to see out of a trench, loopholes were constructed into the parapets. These might be a simple gap in the sandbags or a steel plate, however with the increased use of armour piercing bullets different solutions needed to be explored.

The trench periscope was a device by which soldiers could fire their rifles from the safety of the trench. All sides developed various types of periscope, the simplest being a stick with two angled pieces of mirror at the top and bottom. By 1915, more advanced types were being manufactured. British born William Beech, veteran of the Second South African War enlisted with the Australian Imperial Force in 1914 and was the inventor of a type of trench periscope.

The Beech periscope was a simple design on which the main body of the periscope was attached to the butt of the rifle at a point behind the trigger guard. A cord or wire was then wrapped around the butt in order to secure the rifle to the periscope. Using the mirror at the bottom of the device a view onto the battlefield could be obtained. To fire the rifle, however, one would have to lean far forward in order to the reach the trigger. This could potentially alter the aim of the rifle affecting the accuracy of the shot.

Use and effect

The German made 'Spiegelkolben' was designed with an auxiliary trigger to avoid the firer having to expose any part of himself to enemy fire. As with the Beech design, the butt of the rifle was secured into the periscope by a catch, strapping the rifle securely in place. A second wooden stock was positioned below the real rifle's stock, minimising the need for extra training.

The resulting contraption was heavy and poorly balanced, and had to be rested on the parapet of the trench for any kind of accurate fire. The auxiliary trigger was attached to the actual trigger with a chain which ran on a roller through the centre of the periscope. The user would then look through the periscope and be able to line up their shot through the iron sights of the rifle. Once the shot was taken, the rifle and device would have to be lowered back down into the trench in order to chamber a new round.

By 1915-1916 more technologically advanced versions of the 'Spiegelkolben' were developed, allowing the user to adjust the height of the periscope for an enhanced sight picture. An auxiliary bolt mechanism with a series of connecting rods was clamped to the rifle's bolt handle, permitting reloading from the safety of the trench.

Statistics

• Date entered service - 1916
• Height - 70 cm (28 in)
• Overall length - 1.68 m (67 in)
• Weight - 3.86 kg (8 lb 8 oz) (on rifle)
• Country of manufacture - Germany
• Manufacturer - Unknown
• Primary operator - Germany